For  Reference 


BE  TAKEN  FROM  THIS  ROOM 


II 


'^i>)^ 


LIBRARY     OF 


I885_I056 


THE   INSECT  BOOK 


The  Insfct  Book. 


Platf  I. 
BEES   AND   ANTS 


FIG. 

Evania  appendigaster  i6. 

Discolia  nobilitata  17. 

Discolia  bicincta  18. 

Camponotus  peiinsylvanicus  19. 

Sphaerophthalma  ferruginea  20. 

Myzine  sexcincta  3  21. 

Discolia  dubia  22. 

Camponotus  pennsylvanicus  23. 

Spli3eropiithalma  occiden-  24. 

talisJ^C^P  25. 

Myzine  s'excincta  ?  26. 

Dielis  plumipes  27. 

Ciirysis  parvula  28. 

Sphaerophthalma  occiden-  29. 

talis  ?  ;o. 

Cerceris  clypeatus  31. 
Cerceris  nigrescens 


Chrysis  smaragdula 
CoUetes  hyalinata 
Pseudoplisus  phaieratus 
Astatus  sayi 
Apis  mellifica 
Melissodes 
Xylocopa  virginica 
Megachile  latimanus 
Bembex  spinoias 
Ceratina  dupla 
Bombus  ternarius 
Halictus  flavipes 
Epeolus  remigatus 
Bombus  pennsylvanicus 
Bombus  americarta  ? 
Bombus  americana  $ 


THE  INSECT  BOOK,  a 

POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  BEES 
WASPS,  ANTS,  GRASSHOPPERS,  FLIES  AND 
OTHER  NORTH  AMERICAN  INSECTS 
EXCLUSIVE  OF  THE  BUTTERFLIES 
MOTHS  AND  BEETLES,  WITH  FULL  LIFE 
HISTORIES.  TABLES  AND  BIBLIOGRAPHIES 


BY 

LELAND  O.  HOWARD,  Ph.D. 

CHIEF   OF  THE    DIVISION   OF   ENTOMOLOGY,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE 


NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

1902 


Copyright,  1901,  by 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY, 

June,  1901 


INTRODUCTION. 

Persons  who  love  nature  are  apt  to  be  long-lived  and  their 
lives  are  apt  to  be  happy  ones,  in  this  country  until  quite  re- 
cently few  people  have  realized  this  fact,  and  while  notably  with 
the  Germans,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  with  other  European  nations, 
we  find  a  love  of  nature  fostered  through  early  childhood,  and 
while  there  are  people  of  all  countries  and  all  occupations  who 
know  much  about  the  animals  and  plants  which  surround  them, 
and  many  who  make  collections  and  study  certain  groups  as  a 
fad  or  pastime  and  as  a  relief  from  the  daily  drudgery  of  life,  in 
the  United  States  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  nature  study  in 
the  school  and  in  the  family  until  within  the  past  few  years.  It 
is  true  that  there  have  been  Americans  who  were  born  naturalists 
and  who  have  pursued  their  studies  in  spite  of  uncongenial 
surroundings.  It  is  true,  too,  that  almost  every  country  boy  is  a 
close  observer  in  his  own  untrained  way,  and  that  he  picks  up 
many  interesting  facts  about  his  natural  history  environment. 
But  even  the  youngster  of  decided  tastes  has  been  too  often 
discouraged  by  his  parents,  and,  further  than  that,  he  has  few 
books  to  help  him  and  stimulate  him  in  the  occupation  to  which 
his  tastes  direct  him. 

Recently,  however,  a  great  nature  study  movement  has 
sprung  up  amongst  us  and  in  this  movement  the  study  of  insects 
must  play  an  important  part.  They  are  the  most  easily  observed 
of  living  creatures.  They  abound  everywhere— in  the  fields  and 
woods,  in  the  door-yards,  and,  unfortunately,  even  in  the  house- 
hold. Subjects  for  observation  are  never  lacking,  and  although 
some  prejudice  exists  against  them  as  insignificant  crawling 
creatures  and  in  large  part  nuisances  and  pests  from  a  human 
standpoint,  yet  their  structure  is  wonderful,  their  life  histories 
are  most  interesting,  and  among  them  may  be  found  a  wealth  of 
material  for  the  study  of  broad  life  problems  of  the  utmost 
biographical  importance.  I  know  a  stock  broker,  an  insurance 
agent,  a  commercial  traveler,  a  hotel  clerk,  a  minister  of  the 
Gospel,  a  keeper  of  a  beer  saloon,  a  portrait  painter,  a  hardware 
merchant,  a  stonecutter  an  iron  founder,  a  carpenter  and  builder. 


Introduction 

a  wholesale  wine  merchant,  a  lawyer,  a  chemist,  an  undertaker, 
a  librarian,  an  army  officer,  a  navy  officer,  and  any  number  of 
physicians  and  teachers  who  take  the  greatest  delight  in  the 
study  and  collection  of  insects.  Heaven  will  bless  the  old- 
fashioned  country  doctor  for  his  self-sacrificing  life  and  the  good 
he  has  done  to  humanity.  That  will  everywhere  be  granted, 
but  he  deserves  an  additional  star  in  his  immortal  crown  for  the 
fact  that  he  was  the  original  naturalist  in  this  country.  Very 
many  of  our  early  workers  were  country  doctors,  and  it  has 
been  through  their  influence  that  many  naturalists  have  been  made. 
The  principal  aim  of  this  book  is  to  encourage  the  study  of  a 
rather  neglected  aspect  of  nature.  The  groups  of  insects  which 
it  considers  are  of  very  great  extent.  The  wealth  of  material  is 
so  great  that  it  has  been  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  the 
book  has  been  held  within  reasonable  bounds.  We  have  other 
books  on  insects,  many  of  them  much  better  from  several  points 
of  view  than  this  can  hope  to  be,  yet  there  has  been  a  distinct 
object  in  writing  this  one,  and  if  I  had  not  thought  that  it  was 
needed  I  should  never  have  written  it.  One  of  the  main  desires 
in  my  mind  in  planning  the  method  of  treatment  has  been  to 
encourage  the  study  of  life  histories  of  insects.  Where  possible 
a  typical  life  history  has  been  given  in  each  family  treated. 
Some  of  these  are  moderately  complete  as  to  main  facts,  while 
others  leave  gaps  in  the  life-round  of  the  species.  Such  gaps 
can  in  many  instances  be  easily  filled  by  careful  study.  In  a 
number  of  important  and  interesting  groups,  however,  no 
typical  life  history  can  be  given  for  the  simple  reason  that  no  one 
has  ever  devoted  sufficient  care  and  time  to  the  subject.  The 
army  of  nature  workers  now  springing  up  should  not  devote 
their  whole  time  to  the  well-trodden  paths  of  long  known  and 
clearly  ascertained  truths  when  they  might  just  as  easily,  if  they 
knew  just  where  to  look  and  what  to  do,  study  some  unknown 
life-round  and  learn  exact  facts  which  would  be  contributions  to 
knowledge.  Professor  L.  C.  Miall,  of  England,  who  has  written 
several  most  interesting  books  on  insects,  has  been  a  leader  in  this 
kind  of  work,  but  in  this  country  very  few  perfectly  complete 
life  histories  have  been  worked  out.  Most  of  these  have  been 
done  by  economic  entomologists,  and  hence  nearly  all  that  we 
know  are  of  insects  of  economic  importance.  Very  many 
others,  however,   of  which  we  are  more  or  lees  ignorant,  offer 


Introduction 

fields  of  study  of  fascinating  interest  and  through  such  study  will 
undoubtedly  come  discoveries  of  much  biological  importance. 
Most  boohs  tell  what  is  known,  but  here  we  shall  try  also  to  point 
out  what  is  not  known  but  which,  nevertheless,  can  be  more  or 
less  easily  found  out. 

Something  more  is  necessary,  however,  than  life  history 
study  alone.  One  must  know  the  relations  of  the  creature  he  is 
studying  and,  moreover,  he  must  know  exactly  what  it  is. 
Therefore  synoptic  tables  of  the  larger  groups  have  been  given, 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  full  title  references  have  been  given  to 
all  works  and  papers  which  will  assist  in  the  determination  of 
exact  species  in  each  of  the  larger  groups.  In  this  way  an 
attempt  has  been  made  in  the  first  place  to  foster  the  study  of 
life  histories;  in  the  second  place  to  write  in  popular  style  an 
account  of  these  insects  which  will  interest  perhaps  those  who 
know  little  about  insects  and  who  wish  to  find  out  something 
about  them  in  the  easiest  way;  and,  thirdly,  to  put  those  who 
have  an  earnest  wish  to  go  deeply  into  the  study  in  possession 
of  information  which  will  enable  them  to  follow  their  studies 
much  further  than  this  book  or  any  other  one  book  can  take  them. 

The  choice  of  the  groups  of  insects  treated  in  the  volume 
may  seem  odd,  but  there  are  good  reasons  for  it.  The  majority 
of  collectors  of  insects  confine  their  attention  to  butterflies, 
moths,  and  beetles.  The  butterflies  and  moths  are  most  attrac- 
tive from  several  points  of  view  and  the  beetles  are  compact, 
easily  preserved  and  easily  collected  insects,  whose  classification 
is  most  exact  and  more  available  than  that  of  almost  any  other 
group.  The  butterflies  of  the  United  States  have  already  been 
admirably  treated  in  a  volume  of  this  series — "The  Butterfly 
Book" — by  the  eminent  naturalist,  Dr.  W.J.  Holland,  and  the 
same  author  is  preparing  a  moth  book.  The  beetles  need  a  book 
by  themselves,  and  such  a  volume  will  eventually  be  prepared. 
The  insects  of  the  other  orders  have  been  more  neglected  and 
since  nevertheless  their  study  is  quite  as  interesting  and  perhaps 
even  more  so  than  that  of  the  beetles,  butterflies  and  moths,  a 
special  book  may  well  be  given  to  them. 

It  has  been  the  endeavor  of  the  author  and  publishers  to 
illustrate  the  present  volume  as  profusely  as  possible.  The  plates 
are  all  original,  having  been  photographed  from  insects  either 
collected  especially  for  the  purpose  or  taken  from  the  collection 


Introduction 

of  the  United  States  National  Museum.  The  text  figures  for  the 
most  part  are  printed  from  electrotypes  made  from  blocks  which 
are  the  property  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  many  of  them  have  illustrated  previously  published  articles 
by  the  writer. 

A  word  must  be  said  in  regard  to  the  literature  references 
which  follow  the  consideration  of  most  of  the  groups.  Nearly 
all  of  the  papers  mentioned  have  been  published  either  by  Gov- 
ernment institutions  or  by  learned  societies  and  scientific  periodi- 
cals. Very  few  of  them  have  been  published  as  separate  books, 
but  such  as  have  been  published  in  this  way,  if  of  comparatively 
recent  date,  may  be  obtained  from  book  dealers.  The  periodicals 
and  transactions  of  scientific  societies  may  be  obtained  through 
the  societies  which  publish  them  and  through  the  publishers,  but 
in  the  case  of  Transactions  and  Proceedings,  single  volumes, 
and  more  especially  single  papers,  are  seldom  sold,  and  the  older 
ones  are  liable  to  be  out  of  print.  Moreover,  the  expense  oi 
purchasing  all  of  the  periodicals  containing  the  publications  on 
the  different  groups  of  insects  will  be  so  great  that  few  workers 
can  afford  it.  But  there  is  a  custom  among  writers  on  these 
topics  of  securing  a  certain  number  of  separate  copies  of  their 
papers,  and  these  are  freely  distributed,  so  that  it  often  happens 
that  a  person  interested  can  obtain  a  copy  of  a  scientific  paper  by 
writing  to  the  author.  The  American  Entomological  Society,  of 
Philadelphia,  has  published  a  little  directory  containing  the 
names  and  addresses  of  those  interested  in  the  study  of  insect 
life  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  from  this  directory  the 
addresses  of  all  living  writers  on  insects  in  North  America  can 
be  obtained.  Many  of  these  "author's  separates  "  can  be  pur- 
chased from  dealers  in  second-hand  books,  and  the  American 
Entomological  Society,  of  Philadelphia,  and  a  few  other  societies 
here  and  in  Europe  offer  many  of  these  author's  extras  for  sale, 
and  in  some  cases  publish  lists.  Moreover,  there  are  certain 
establishments  through  which  the  student  can  buy  nearly  all  of 
the  works  and  separates  which  he  needs.  These  are  dealers  in 
natural'  history  books  and  papers,  and  many  of  them  publish 
catalogues  which  are  sent  free  on  application.  Bulletin  24,  new 
series  of  the  Division  of  Entomology,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  contains  a  list  of  these  dealers  which  publish 
catalogues,    and   this   bulletin   is   sent  freely  to    all    applicants. 


Introduction 

Many  systematic  papers  have  been  published  by  the  United 
States  Government  through  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the 
National  Museum,  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
Geological  and  Geographical  Surveys.  Many  of  these  publica- 
tions are  distributed  free  of  cost  to  applicants,  while  others  are 
sold  at  a  moderate  price  to  cover  the  cost  of  publication.  There 
is  a  Government  institution  known  as  the  Office  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Documents,  Union  Building,  Washington,  which 
publishes  lists  of  Government  publications  and  sends  them  free 
of  charge  to  applicants.  From  these  lists  one  can  see  what  has 
been  published  and  what  is  still  on  hand  for  distribution,  and 
what  price  must  be  paid  for  the  available  ones.  Many  of  them 
are  out  of  print,  but  these  can  be  obtained  through  dealers  in 
second-hand  books.  There  are  two  large  firms  of  such  dealers 
in  Washington,  and  these  make  a  specialty  of  Government 
publications.  They  are:  W.  H.  Lowdermilk  &  Company,  Cor- 
coran Building,  and  Lewis  S.  Hayden,  1212  F  street,  N.  W. 

The  subject  of  how  to  collect  and  preserve  the  different 
kinds  of  insects  mentioned  in  this  book  is  treated  in  a  separate 
section  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

The  writer  owes  warm  thanks  to  several  of  his  associates 
in  Washington,  all  of  whom  are  specialists  in  certain  groups  of 
insects,  for  advice  and  suggestions.  These  are  Mr.  W.  H.  Ash- 
mead,  the  results  of  whose  labors  in  the  Hymenoptera  have  been 
so  largely  used,  and  who  has  read  the  section  relating  to  this 
important  order;  Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett,  a  well-known  writer  on 
Diptera,  who  has  prepared  the  table  of  the  higher  groups  of  this 
order  which  is  given  in  this  volume  and  who  has  read  the  manu- 
script of  the  Diptera;  Mr.  O.  Heidemann,  to  whom  the  writer  is 
indebted  for  information  concerning  the  Heteroptera,  and  who 
has  loaned  specimens  for  illustration  from  his  private  collection ; 
Mr.  Nathan  Banks  and  Mr.  Rolla  P.  Currie,  who  have  helped 
with  advice  regarding  the  portions  of  the  book  which  relate  to 
the  insects  of  the  Neuropteroid  series;  Mr.  F.  H.  Chittenden,  who 
has  loaned  for  illustration  insects  from  his  private  collection; 
Mr.  F.  C.  Pratt,  whose  excellent  work  in  the  resetting  of  the 
insects  illustrated  on  the  plates  and  in  the  arrangement  and 
mounting  of  the  plates,  a  most  difficult  and  laborious  task,  will, 
I  trust,  be  appreciated  by  the  reader. 

I  wish  especially  to  thank  Dr.  E.  P.  Felt,  State  Entomologist 


Introduction 


of  New  York,  for  allowing  me  to  examine  the  manuscript  of  an 
admirable  report  on  aquatic  insects,  prepared  by  Dr.  J.  G.  Need- 
ham,  and  which  will  be  published  in  Bulletin  48  of  the  New 
York  State  Museum. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


Introduction 

List  of  Plates 

List  of  Text  illustrations 

Order  Hymenoptera 

Table  of  Suborders  and  Superfiimilies 

The  True  Bees  (Superfamily  Apoidea) 

Life  History  of  a  Bumble  Bee  ( Bombtis  fervidus ) 

Wasps 

The  Solitary  Wasps  (Superfamily  Sphecoidea )    . 

Life  History  of  a  Digger  Wasp  (Sphecius  specjosns 

Say.) 

The    Social   Wasps   and   Their    Allies     (Superfamily 

yespoidea) 

Typical  Life  History 

Life  History  of  a  Parasitic  Wasp  (La'lius  trogoder- 

matis) 

The  Ants  (Superfamily   Fonnicoidea) 

Typical  Life  History 

The   Proctotrypid  Parasites  (Superfamily    Proctotry 

poidea) 

The  Gail-Flies  (Superfamily  Cynipoidea)    . 
The  Chalcis  Flies  (Superfamily  Clmlcldoidea)     . 

Life  History  of  a  Chalcis  Fly  (  Eiiplectnis  comstochi 

How.) 

The  Ichneumon  Flies  (Superfamily  Ichneiiinonoidea) 
Life  History  of  an  Ichneumon  Fly  ( Pimpla  inqui- 
sitor)     

The  Horn-Tails  (Superfamily  Siricoidea)    . 

Life  History  of  a  \\orr\-l'A\\( Phyll(scns  integer)  . 
The  Saw-Flies  (Superfamily  Tentliredinoidea)    . 

Life    History  of   the   Pear   Slug  (Eriocampoides 
liniacina)     ....... 

The  True  Flies  (Order  Diptera) 


XIX 

xxi 
I 

2 

4 

12 

i8 
i8 

23 

25 
33 

34 
31 


49 
53 


57 
61 

64 
69 
71 
73 

76 
79 


Table  of  Contents 


Table  of  the  Higher  Groups 83 

The  Crane  Flies  (Family  Tipulidt^)  ....  94 

Life  History   of    a    Crane    Fly   ( Bittacomorpha 

clavipes) 95 

Families  Dixidcv  and  Slenoxenidce     ....  97 

Mosquitoes  (Family  Culicidcv)  ....  98 

L\is  W'lstory  oi  ■d}Aos,qu\\.o(Cnlex  ptmgens)       .  104 

The  Moth  Flies  (Family  Psyrhodidcv)      .         .         .  108 

The  Midges  (Family    Chironomidce)        .         .         .  no 

Life  History  of  a  Midge  {Chironomus  minuttis)  in 

The  Gall-Gnats  (Family  Q/;/i;?o;;n7'/t/tr^    .         .         .  113 

Life  History  of  a  Gall-Gnat  (Cecidomyia  legumini- 

cola) .  115 

Fungus  Gnats  (Family  Mvr^/o/)/n7z'rfa'/      .        .         .  117 

The  March   Flies  (Family  Bibionidce)      .         .         .  119 
The  Black  Flies  and  Buffalo  Gnats  (Family  Simiilii- 

dcr) 120 

Life  History  of  a  Black  Fly  (Similhim  pictipes)  .  121 
Families  Orphnephilida',  Blepharoceridce  and  Rhy- 

phidce 124 

The  Snipe  Flies  (Family  Leptidiv)     ....  126 

Soldier  Flies  (Family  Stratiomyiidcv)  .         .         .  128 

Family  Acanthomeridce 130 

The  Gad-Flies  or  Horse-FIies  (Family  7"rt^a;z/^a'^     .  131 

Life  History  of  a  Gad-Fly  (Tabanns  atratus)     .  132 
The  Small-Headed  Flies  and  the  Tangle-Veined  Flies 

(Fam'iWes  Acroceridcv  and  Neniestrinidce)  .         .  134 

Families  Mydaidce  and  Apioceridcv  .         .         .         .  136 

The  Bee-Flies  (Family  Bombyliidce)  .         .         .         .  137 

Life  History  of  a  Bee-Fly  (Systoechus  oreas)      .  138 
The  Window-Flies  and  Stiletto  Flies  (Families  Sce- 

nopinidx  and  Therevida')  .         .         .         .  139 

The  Robber  Flies  (Family  Asilidcv)  .         .         .         .  141 
The  Dance  Flies  and  the  Long-Legged  Flies  (Families 

Empididiv  and   Do/icliopodidcvJ        .         .         .  144 

The  Spear- Winged  Flies  (Family  Loiichopleridce)     .  146 

The  Hump-Backed  Flies  (Family  Phoridcv)       .         .  147 

Life  History  of  the  Ant-Decapitating  Fly  (Apoce- 

phaliis  pergandei) 147 


Table  of  Contents 


The    Fiat-Footed    Flies    and    the     Big-Eyed    Flies 

(Families  Plalvpeiida:  and  Pipunciiliciiv) 
The  Syrphus-Flies  (Family  SyrphiiiiV) 
The  Thick-Headed  Flies  (Family  Coiiopi'JivJ 
The   Bot-Flies  (CEstrhicv) 

Life  History  of  a  Bot-Fly  ( Hypoderma  lineata) 
The  Tachina  Flies  (Family  Tachinidiv ) 
The  Nimble  Flies  (Family  Dexiidcc) 
The  Flesh  Flies  (Family  Sarcophagida') 
The    House    Fly   and   Its    Near   Relations    (Family 

Muscidir)  ..... 

Life  History  of  the  House  Fly  (Miisca  domes- 

tica) 

The  Anthomyia  Flies  (Family  Anfhomyiidce)     . 
The  Dung  Flies    (Families  Scatophagidiv   and  Hei 

eroneiiridtv)       ...... 

Families   Heloiiiyitda',   Phycodromidce  and   Scioiny 

i'da.') 

Families  Sapromyiidiv,  Loiichtridcr  and  Orialidce 
The  Fruit  and  Gall  Flies  (Family  Trypeiidce)     . 
Families  Micropeiida',  Sepsidcc,    Psilidce  and  Diop- 

sidce 

The  Salt  Water  Flies  (Family  Ephydridce) 
The  Grass-Stem  Flies  (Family  Oscinidce) 
The  Little  Fruit  Flies  (Family  Drosopliilidcv)    . 
Families  Geoinyj^ida',  Agromyyda:  and  Borbortdce 
The  Bird-Ticks  (Family  Hippoboscida') 
The   Bat-Ticks  (Family  Nycteribiida') 
Fleas  (Order  Siphonaptera) 

Life    History   of  the  Cat  and    Dog  Flea  (Piilex 
serraticeps) 
The  Caddis-Flies  (Order  Trichoptera) 
Table  of  Families     ..... 
Family  Phiyganeidcp. 
Family  Limnephilidcc 
Family  Rhyacophilidce 
Family  Hydropiil/diV 
Family  Sericostomatidce    . 
Family  Leptoceridce 
Family  Hydropsychidce     . 


149 
150 
154 

155 
158 
162 
163 


167 
171 

173 

■74 
175 

■77 

■79 
182 
183 
185 


190 
191 

■93 

■9S 
■97 
198 

■99 
200 
201 
202 
203 
204 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

The  Scorpion  Flies  (Order  Mecoptera)     ....  206 

Family  PaiwrpitliV 207 

Life  History  of  a  Scorpion  Fly  ( Panorpa  rufes- 

cens)  ........  207 

The  Lace-Winged  Insects  (Order  Neuroptera)           .         .  209 

Table  of  Families 210 

The  Dobson  and  its  Family  (Family  Sialidcv)  .         .  211 

Life  History  of  the  Dobson  (Corvdalis  corniila)  212 

The  Snake-Flies  (Family /?(Z/)/?/(///ii'irj       .         .         .  216 

The  False  Rearhorses  (Family  M<TH//5^/rfrr^       .         .  217 

The  Dusty-Wings  (Family  Coniopierygidce)      .         .  218 

The  Ant-Lions  (Family  MyrmeleonidcB)    .         .         .  219 

The  Aphis-Lions  (Family  Hemerobiidce)  .        .        .  221 
The  Golden-Eyed  Lace- Winged  Flies  (Family  Chry- 

sopida-) 222 

Life    History    of   the    Golden-Fye    (Chrysopa 

octilata) 224 

Plant-Lice,  Scale  Insects,  True  Bugs,  Etc.  (Order  Hemip- 

tera) 226 

Table  of  Suborders 227 

Suborder  Homoptera 228 

Table  of  Families 229 

The  Harvest  Flies  or  Cicadas  (Family  Cicadidcc)       .  231 
Life    History    of    the     Seventeen-Year    Locust 

(Cicada  septendecim)          ....  2}} 
The  Lantern  Flies  and  Their  Allies  (Family  Fiilgori- 

dce) 235 

Life  History  of  the  Frosted  Lightning  Hopper 

(OrniCJiis  pniinosa)    .....  236 

The  Tree  Hoppers  (Family  Membracidce )         .        .  237 
Life  History  of  the  Buffalo  Tree  Hopper  (Ceresa 

biibalus) 239 

The  Frog-Hoppers  or  Spittle  Insects  (Family  Cerco- 

pi'da') 241 

The  Leaf-Hoppers  (Family  Jassidcr)        .         .         .  243 
Life  History  of   a  Leaf-Hopper  ( Deltocephaliis 

iniiniciis)    .......  245 

The  White  Flies  or  Aleyrodids  (Family  Aleyrodidce)  246 

Life  History  of  a  White  Fly  (Aleyrodes  citri)    .  247 

Scale  Insects  (Family   Coccidx)        ....  250 


Table  of   Contents 


Life  History  of  the  Oyster-Shell  Bark-Louse  of 
the  Apple  (Mjtilaspis  pomoruin) 
The  Jumping  Plant-Lice  or  Flea-Lice  (Family  Psyllidw 
Life    History  of    the  Pear  Tree   Psylla   ( Psylla 

pyricolii) 

Plant-Lice  (Family  Aphididce)  .        .         . 

Life  History  of  the  Hop  Plant-Louse  ( Pliorodon 
hiimnli)        .... 


The  True  Bugs  (Suborder  Heteroptera)     . 
Table  of  Families        .  ... 

The  Water  Boatman  (Family  Corixidce) 
The  Back  Swimmers  (Family  NotonectidiV 
The  Water  Scorpions  (Family  NepidcvJ 
The  Giant  Water  Bugs  (Family  Belostomatidce) 
The  Creeping  Water  Bugs  (Family  Naucoridce) 
The  Toad  Bugs  (Family  Galgiilidce) 
The  Marsh  Treaders  (Family  Limnobatidce) 
The  Water  Striders  (Family  Hydrometridce)     . 

Life   History   of  a   Water  Strider  ( Hydrometra 
lineaia)         .... 
The  Flower  Bugs  (Family  Atithocorida') 
The  Bed- Bug  Family  (Family  Cimicida:) 

Life  History  of  the  Bed-Bug  (Cimex  lectularius) 
The  Shore  Bugs  (Family  Saldidcv)    . 
The  Thin-Winged  Bugs  (Family  Henicophalidce) 
The  Assassin  Bugs  (Family  Rediiviida')     . 

Life  History  of  the  Wheel-Bug  (Ariias  cristatus) 
The  Ambush  Bugs  (Family  PhymafidceJ 
The  Flat  Bark-Bugs  (Family  Aradidce) 
The  Lace  Bugs  (Family  Tingitidiv)    . 

Life  History  of  the  Hawthorn  Lace-Bug  {Cory- 
thuca  arc  II  at  a) 
The  Leaf-Bugs  (Family  Capsidce) 

Life    History    of    a    Leaf-Bug     ( Pcecilocapsus 

lineatus) 

The  Squash-Bug  and  Its  Allies  (Family  Coreidce) 

Life  History  of  the  Squash-Bug  (Anasa  tristis) 
The  Cotton  Stainer  and  Its  Allies  (Family  Pyrrhoco- 

ridce) 


255 
259 

260 
262 

265 

269 
270 
273 
275 
276 
278 
280 
281 
282 
283 

285 
287 
288 
289 
291 
292 
293 
294 
297 
298 
299 

300 
301 

302 
304 
305 

307 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGB 

Life  History  of  the  Cotton  Stainer  (Dysdercus 

sutiirellns) 308 

The  Stilt  Bugs  (Family  Berytidce)      ....  309 

The  Chinch  Bug  Family  (Family  Lygceidce)        .        .  310 
Life  History  of  the  Chinch  Bug  (Blissus  leucop- 

terus) 311 

The  Stink-Bugs  and  Their  Allies  (Family  Ventato- 

midce) 313 

Life  History  of  a  Stink-Bug  (Podisus  cyaneiven- 

tris) 314 

The  True  Lice  (Suborder  Anoplura) 316 

Thrips  (Order  Physopoda) 318 

Grasshoppers,  Katydids,  Crickets,  Etc.  (Order  Orthop- 

tera) 320 

Table  of  Families 322 

The  Walking  Sticks  (Family  Phasmidce)  .        .        .  323 
Life  History  of  a  Walking  Stick  {Diapheromera 

femorata) ^2^ 

Rear-Horses  or  Praying  Mantids  (Family  Mantidce)  326 
Life   History    of   a    Rear-Horse  ( Stagmomantis 

Carolina) .  327 

Cockroaches  (Family  Blattida:)         ....  329 
Short-Horned  Locusts  or  True  Grasshoppers  (Family 

Acridiidce) ^^2 

Life  History  of  a  Grasshopper  ( Melanoplus  at- 

lanis) 334 

Long-Horned  Grasshoppers  (Family  Locustidce)       .  }}6 
Life  History  of  a  Katydid  ( Microcentrum  retin- 

ervis) 339 

The  Crickets  (Family  Gryllidce)        .        .        .        .  341 

Earwigs  (Order  Euplexoptera) 345 

Bird  Lice  (Order  Mallophaga) 347 

Table  of  Families 349 

The  Book-Lice  and  Their  Allies  (Order  CorroJentia)         .  350 

White  Ants  (Order  Isoptera) 353 

The  Stone  Flies  (Order  Plecoptera) 361 

Dragon  Flies  (Order  Odonata) 363 

Table  of  Families 369 

Damsel  Flies 370 

Family  Calopterygidce 370 

xvi 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

Family  Agrionidct 371 

True  Dragon  Flies 372 

Family  Goniphidce 372 

Family  Cordulegastridiv 373 

Family  y^schuidcv 374 

Family  Cordulidw 375 

Family  Libelliilid<:e 376 

May  Flies  or  Shad  Flies  (Order  Ephemerida)     .        •        .  377 

Spring-Tails  and  Fish-Moths  (Order  Thysanura)       .        .  380 

Suborder  Cinura 381 

Family  Lepismatida: 382 

Family  Japygido' 384 

Family  Campodeidcv 384 

Suborder  Collembola 385 

Family  Aphoruridcc 386 

Family  Poduridce 386 

Family  Entotnobryidce 387 

Family  Symnthuridce 388 

Family  Papiriidcz 388 

Collecting  and  Preserving  insects 389 

Collecting  Apparatus 389 

Points  on  Methods  of  Collecting  Different  Orders      .  394 

Collecting  Aquatic  Insects 395 

Rearing  Different  kinds  of  Insects      ....  396 

Killing  and  Preserving  Insects 401 

Preparing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet       ....  401 

Bibliography 405 


LIST   OF    PLATES 


Plate  1. 

Bees  and  Ants 

Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGB 

Plate  II. 

Bees      .... 

2 

Plate  III. 

Bees             .... 

lO 

Plate  IV. 

Wasps  and  Bees 

i8 

Plate  V. 

Wasps         .... 

24 

Plate  VI. 

"      . 

•     30 

Plate  VII. 

"             .... 

36 

Plate  Vlll. 

Wasps,  Ants  and  Ichneumon  Flies 

.     46 

Plate  IX. 

Ichneumon  Flies  and  Chalcis  Flies 

56 

Plate  X. 

Ichneumon  Flies          .            •       "• 

.     60 

Plate  XI. 

Wasps         .... 

68 

Plate  XII. 

Saw-flies  and  Horn-tails 

•        76 

Plate  XIII. 

"           "               .            . 

84 

Plate  XIV. 

Saw-flies 

92 

Plate  XV. 

True  Flies 

104 

Plate  XVI. 

"        "           . 

.       116 

Plate  XVII. 

128 

Plate  XVIIl. 

"        "           . 

140 

Plate  XIX. 

152 

Plate  XX. 

"        "           . 

164 

Plate  XXI. 

176 

Plate  XXII. 

"        ■'           . 

.       188 

Plate  XXIII. 

Neuropteroid  Insects 

208 

Plate  XXIV. 

"         .            . 

.      218 

Plate  XXV. 

.            . 

228 

Plate  XXVI. 

"          .            . 

.      238 

List  of  Plates 


FACING  PAGE 


Plate  XXVII.    Bugs,  Leaf-hoppers  and  Cicades              .  248 

Plate  XXVIII.  Cicadas  and  Leaf-hoppers       .            .            .  256 

Plate  XXIX.      True  Bugs             ....  266 

Plate  XXX.          "         " 278 

Plate  XXXI.         "        "               ....  280 
Plate  XXXII.    Miscellaneous  Orthoptera       .            .            .288 

Plate  XXXIII.   Long-horned  and  Short-horned  Grasshoppers  296 

Plate  XXXIV.             "              "             "                       "  328 

Plate  XXXV.    Miscellaneous  Orthoptera              .            .  336 

Plate  XXXVI.  Short-horned  Grasshoppers  or  True  Locusts  342 

Plate  XXXVII.            "                      "                "            "  346 

Plate  XXXVIH.           "                      "                "           "  352 

Plate  XXXIX.             "                      "                "           "  358 

Plate  XL.          Dragon  flies                ....  364 

Plate  XLI.               "          "            .            .            .            .  368 

Plate  XLII.             "          "                 ....  370 

Plate  XLIII.            <'          "            .            .            .            .  ^^4 
Plate  XLIV.           •'          "                .            .            .            .376 

Plate  XLV.            ""....  378 

Plate  XLVI.            .<          "                 ....  380 

Plate  XLVn.           <■          "            .            .            .            .  ^84 

Plate  XLVIIl.        "         "                ....  388 


LIST   OF   TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig. 

I. 

Head  and  tongue  of  worker  bee 

4 

Fig. 

2. 

Heads  of  queen  and  drone          .... 

S 

Fig. 

3- 

Queen  cells  and  worker  brood  of  honey  bee 

7 

Fig. 

4- 

Queen  of  the  common  honey  bee 

7 

Fig. 

5- 

Legs  of  different  bees         ..... 

8 

Fig. 

6. 

Legs  of  different  bees         ..... 

9 

Fig. 

7- 

Sphecius  speciosus  carrying  Cicada  to  its  burrow 

23 

Fig. 

8. 

Adult  Cicada  bearing  eggs  of  Sphecius 

23 

Fig. 

9- 

Larva  of  digger  wasp  in  Cicada  burrow 

24 

Fig. 

lO. 

Same,  spinning  its  cocoon         .... 

24 

Fig. 

1 1. 

Immature  stages  of  the  digger  wasp 

24 

Fig. 

12. 

Cocoon  of  same 

25 

Fig. 

u- 

Polistes  pallipes         ...... 

25 

Fig. 

14. 

Polistes  rubiginosus  ...... 

26 

Fig. 

•5- 

Odynerus  flavipes  and  its  nest  in  a  spool   . 

3> 

Fig. 

16. 

Tiphia  inornata 

31 

Fig. 

17- 

Chrysis  sp 

3' 

Fig. 

18. 

Laelius  trogodermatis 

35 

Fig. 

19. 

Goniozus  sp.  parasitic  on  larvze  of  codling  moth 

36 

Fig. 

20. 

Solenopsis  xyloni 

37 

Fig. 

21. 

Crematogaster  lineolata 

38 

Fig. 

22. 

Monomorium  minutum 

39 

Fig. 

23- 

Tetramorium  csespitum      ..... 

40 

Fig. 

24. 

Ants  at  play       . 

46 

Fig. 

25. 

Pelecinus  polyturator 

50 

Fig. 

26. 

Baeus  americanus       ...... 

51 

Fig. 

27- 

Cynips  spongifica      ...... 

53 

Fig. 

28. 

Diastrophus  nebulosus 

54 

Fig. 

29. 

Pachyneuron  micans          

56 

Fig. 

30. 

Chalcis  ovata 

57 

Fig. 

32. 

Larvae  of  Euplectrus  ccmstockii 

58 

Fig. 

33- 

Pupae  of  same             

58 

List  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig 

34 

Adult  of  same 

59 

Fig 

35 

Thalessa  lunator 

62 

Fig 

36 

Same 

(>3 

Fig 

37 

Polysphincta  dictynae 

(>3 

Fig 

38 

Pimpla  inquisitor 

64 

Fig 

39 

Same,  early  stages     . 

65 

Fig 

40 

Same,  cocoons 

67 

Fig 

4> 

Tremex  columba 

70 

Fig 

42 

Cephus  pygmaeus 

70 

Fig 

43 

Pliylloecus  integer     . 

71 

Fig 

44 

Cimbex  americana     . 

74 

Fig 

45 

Nematus  similaris     . 

75 

Fig 

46 

Nematus  marylandicus 

75 

Fig 

47 

Eriocampoides  limacina  (Pear  Slug) 

76 

Fig 

48 

"                   "                 " 

77 

Fig 

49 

"                   "                 " 

77 

Fig 

50 

"                   "                 " 

78 

Fig 

51 

Pachyrrhina  sp. 

94 

Fig 

52 

Anopheles  punctipennis 

98 

Fig 

53 

Culex  sollicitans 

99 

Fig 

54 

Anopheles  maculipennis 

100 

Fig 

55 

"                  " 

lOI 

Fig 

56 

"          larva  and  Culex  larva 

102 

Fig 

57 

"          pupa  and  Culex  pupa 

J  03 

Fig 

58 

Psorophora  ciliata 

104 

Fig 

59 

Culex  pungens 

105 

Fig 

60 

" 

106 

Fig 

61 

Chironomus  larva 

no 

Fig 

62 

"          plumosus 

III 

Fig 

63 

Cecidomyia  trifolii     . 

"3 

Fig 

64 

Diplosis  resinicola 

114 

Fig 

65 

"        pyrivora 

114 

Fig 

66 

Cecidomyia  leguminicola 

"5 

Fig 

67 

Sciara  tritici 

117 

Fig 

68 

Bibio  albipennis 

119 

Fig 

69 

Simuiium  meridionale 

120 

Fig 

70 

"         invenustum 

121 

Fig 

7' 

" 

121 

Fig 

72 

. 

122 

Fig 

73 

"         ornatum    . 

.       123 

i^ist  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig.  74- 

Chrysops  fugax 

•       Ul 

Fig-  75- 

Tabanus  atratus 

.       132 

Fig.  76. 

Anthrax  hypomelas  . 

•       137 

Fig.  77. 

Systcechus  oreas 

.       138 

Fig.  78. 

"            " 

.       138 

Fig.  79. 

Scenopinus  fenestralis 

•       139 

Fig.  80. 

Erax  l^astardi     . 

.       141 

Fig.  81. 

"     apicalis 

.       142 

Fig.  82. 

Mesograpta  polita 

.       150 

Fig.  83. 

Eristalis  tenax   . 

•       J5' 

Fig.  84. 

Rat-tailed  maggot 

.       152 

Fig.  85. 

CEstrus  ovis 

•       >55 

Fig.  86. 

Hypoderma  lineata    . 

156 

Fig.  87. 

Winthemia  quadri-pustula 

ta 

.       158 

Fig.  88. 

Euphorocera  claripennis 

•       159 

Fig.  89. 

Compsomyia  macellaria 

163 

Fig.  90. 

Lucilia  cjesar    . 

.       163 

Fig.  91- 

Calliphora  erythrocepiiaia 

164 

Fig.  92. 

Sarcopiiaga  sarracenise 

.       165 

Fig.  93- 

Hsematobia  serrata     . 

166 

Fig.  94- 

Morellia  micans 

167 

Fig.  95- 

Stomoxys  caicitrans 

167 

Fig.  96. 

Musca  domestica 

168 

Fig.  97. 

Homalomyia  brevis  . 

171 

Fig.  98. 

Pegomyia  vicina 

172 

Fig.  99- 

Scatophaga  furcata    . 

173 

Fig.  100. 

Ciisetopsis  jenea 

'75 

Fig.  101. 

Trypeta  signalis 

177 

Fig.  102. 

Sepsis  violacea 

179 

Fig.  103. 

Piophila  casei    . 

180 

Fig.  104. 

Nemopoda  minuta     . 

180 

Fig.  105. 

Hippeiates  plebejus    . 

183 

Fig.  106. 

Gaurax  anciiora 

184 

Fig.  107. 

Drosophila  ampelophila 

185 

Fig.  108. 

Sphaerocera  subsultans 

187 

Fig.  109. 

Oifersia  americana     . 

188 

Fig.  no. 

Meiophagus  ovinus   . 

189 

Fig.  111. 

Nycteribia  sp.    . 

190 

Fig.  1 12. 

Pulex  serraticeps 

191 

Fig.  113- 

Sarcopsylla  gallinacea 

192 

List  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig.  114. 

Caddis  fly  and  larva. 

195 

Fig.   115 

Nest  of  Hydropsyche 

204 

Fig.   116 

Hydropsyche  sp.  (larva)  . 

204 

Fig.   117 

Corydalis  cornuta    . 

213 

Fig.   118 

"            "          .         . 

214 

Fig.   119 

Chrysopa  plorabunda 

222 

Fig.   120 

"         oculata     . 

223 

Fig.    121 

"             "          .         . 

225 

Fig.   122 

Cicada  septendecim 

231 

Fig.   123 

(work) 

231 

Fig.   124 

(eggs) 

2^2 

Fig.   I2S 

"                "         (work) 

233 

Fig.   126 

"                "          (larva) 

234 

Fig.   127 

Helicoptera  sp. 

235 

Fig.   128 

Scolops  sulcipes 

235 

Fig.   129 

Otiocerus  coqueberti 

235 

Fig.   130 

Ceresa  taurina 

237 

Fig.   131 

"           "               .        . 

238 

Fig.   132 

Enchenopa  binotata 

238 

Fig.   133 

Archasia  galeata 

239 

Fig.   134 

Ceresa  bubalus 

239 

Fig.   135 

"             " 

240 

Fig.   136 

Monecophora  bicincta     . 

241 

Fig.   137 

Proconia  undata 

243 

Fig.   138 

Thamnotettix  clittelerius 

243 

Fig.   139 

Erythroneura  vitis   . 

244 

Fig.   140 

Aleyrodes  citri 

246 

Fig.   141 

"          " 

248 

Fig.   142 

Diaspis  pentagona  . 

250 

Fig.   143 

"               " 

251 

Fig.   144 

"               "           .         . 

251 

Fig.   145 

"       rosse   . 

252 

Fig.   146 

Lecanium  nigrofasciatum 

252 

Fig.   147 

Dactylopius  citri 

253 

Fig.   148 

"           longifilis 

253 

Fig.   149 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis  . 

254 

Fig.   150 

Mytilaspis  pomorum 

255 

Fig.   15" 

"                " 

256 

Fig.   IS2 

Chionaspis  furfurus 

257 

Fig.   153 

Pachypsylla  venusta  0.  S. 

259 

List  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig. 

54- 

Pear  tree  Psylla 

260 

Fig. 

55- 

"       "       "             ... 

261 

Fig. 

56. 

"       "       " 

261 

Fig. 

37- 

Nectaropiiora  (destructor)  pisum 

262 

Fig. 

58. 

Phylloxera  vastatrix 

263 

Fig. 

59- 

"                "                .         . 

263 

Fig. 

60. 

"                "                 .         . 

264 

Fig. 

61. 

.         . 

264 

Fig. 

62. 

Phorodon  humuli 

266 

Fig. 

63. 

.         .  '       . 

266 

Fig. 

64. 

"             "... 

267 

Fig. 

65. 

"             "... 

267 

Fig. 

66. 

"             "... 

268 

Fig. 

67. 

Corixa  interrupta  Say 

273 

Fig. 

68. 

Notonecta  undulata 

275 

Fig. 

69. 

Nepa  cinerea 

276 

Fig. 

70. 

Ranatra  fusca 

277 

Fig. 

7'- 

Ambrysus  signoreti 

280 

Fig. 

72. 

Galgulus  oculatus    . 

281 

Fig. 

73- 

Hydrometra  lineata 

282 

Fig. 

74- 

Gerris  (Hygrotrechus)  remigis  Say 

283 

Fig. 

75- 

Rheumatobates  riieyi 

284 

Fig. 

76. 

Triphleps  insidiosus 

287 

Fig. 

77- 

y^ciacus  hirundinis 

288 

Fig. 

78. 

Cimex  lectularius  (young) 

289 

Fig. 

79- 

"            "           ... 

290 

Fig. 

79« 

Henicocephalus  culicis     . 

292 

Fig. 

80. 

Conorhinus  sanguisuga    . 

295 

Fig. 

81. 

Reduvius  personatus 

293 

Fig. 

182. 

Rasahus  biguttatus 

294 

Fig. 

83. 

Melanolestes  abdominalis 

294 

Fig. 

84. 

Milyas  cinctus 

294 

Fig. 

85. 

Emesa  longipes 

295 

Fig. 

86. 

Arilus  cristatus 

296 

Fig. 

87. 

Phymata  wolffi 

297 

Fig. 

88. 

Aradus  robustus       .     •    . 

298 

Fig. 

189. 

Gargaphia  angulata 

299 

Fig. 

90. 

Corythuca  arcuata   . 

•      299 

Fig. 

191. 

(eggs) 

300 

Fig. 

192. 

Piesma  cinerea 

.      300 

List  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig. 

193. 

Halticus  uhleri 

302 

Fig. 

194. 

Poecilocapsus  lineatus 

303 

Fig. 

'95- 

Leptoglossus  phyllopus 

304 

Fig. 

196. 

Metapodius  femoratus 

304 

Fig. 

197. 

Corizus  hyalinus 

305 

Fig. 

198. 

Leptocoris  trivittatus 

305 

Fig. 

199. 

Anasa  armigera 

306 

Fig. 

200. 

Largus  succinctus    . 

307 

Fig. 

201. 

Dysdercus  sutureilus 

308 

Fig. 

202. 

Myodocha  serripes  . 

310 

Fig. 

203. 

Nysius  angustatus    . 

3" 

Fig. 

204. 

Blissus  leucopterus 

3«i 

Fig. 

205. 

"                " 

312 

Fig. 

206. 

"                " 

312 

Fig. 

207. 

Murgantia  histrionica 

313 

Fig. 

208. 

Euschistus  variolarius 

3U 

Fig. 

209. 

CorimeliEna  pulicaria 

3H 

Fig. 

210. 

Broclnymena  annuiata 

314 

Fig. 

211. 

Stiretrus  anchorage 

315 

Fig. 

212. 

Pediculus  capitis 

316 

Fig. 

213. 

Thrips  tritici    . 

318 

Fig. 

214. 

Diapheromera  femorata 

324 

Fig. 

215. 

Stagmomantis  Carolina 

326 

Fig. 

216. 

"       (eggs) 

328 

Fig. 

217. 

Periplaneta  americana 

329 

Fig. 

218. 

Ectohia  germanica,  different  stages 

330 

Fig. 

219. 

Periplaneta  orientalis      "           " 

331 

Fig. 

220. 

Melanoplus  devastator     . 

332 

Fig. 

221. 

Schistocerca  americana    . 

332 

Fig. 

222. 

Romalea  microptera 

333 

Fig. 

223. 

Melanoplus  spretus,  laying  eggs 

334 

Fig. 

224. 

Orchelimum  vulgare,  and  eggs 

33(> 

Fig. 

225. 

Song  note  of  Cyrtophyllum  concavum 

331 

Fig. 

226. 

Microcentrum  retinervis  . 

33^ 

Fig. 

227. 

Day  song  of  Scudderia  angustifolia 

339 

Fig. 

227^ 

Night      " 

339 

Fig. 

228. 

Gryllus  assimilis      .... 

341 

Fig. 

229. 

"      domesticus  .... 

341 

Fig. 

230. 

Anabrus  simplex     .... 

342 

Fig. 

231. 

Song  note  of  the  mole  cri 

cket 

•      342 

List  of  Text  Illustrations 


Fig. 

232. 

Fig. 

^33- 

Fig. 

234. 

Fig. 

23s. 

Fig. 

236. 

Fig. 

237. 

Fig. 

238. 

Fig. 

239. 

Fig. 

240. 

Fig. 

241. 

Fig. 

242. 

Fig. 

243. 

Fig. 

244. 

Fig. 

245. 

Fig. 

246. 

Fig. 

247. 

Fig. 

248. 

Fig. 

249. 

Fig. 

250. 

Fig. 

251. 

Fig. 

252. 

Fig. 

253- 

Fig. 

254. 

Fig. 

255- 

Fig. 

256. 

Fig. 

257. 

Fig. 

258. 

Fig. 

259. 

Fig. 

260. 

Fig. 

261. 

Fig. 

262. 

Fig. 

2(>3. 

Fig. 

264. 

Song  note  of  the  field  cricket 

Day  song  of  the  snowy  tree  crici<et 

Night 

Song  of  the  cave  cricket 

Forficula  sp. 

Menopon  biseriatum 

Goniocotes  abdominalis 

.  "  dissimilis 

Atropos  divinatoria 
Termes  flavipes,  male  and  female 

"      false  queen,  workers  and 
Plathemis  lydia 
Lepisma  domestica 

"        saccharina 
Lepidocyrtus  americanus 

"     side  view 
The  hand  net  frame 
The  Sanborn  net  frame   . 
Beating  net  or  sweeping  net 
A  good  hand  net 
Small  water  dip  net 
A  fumigator     . 
A  good  haversack    . 
The  umbrella  and  its  mode  of 
The  Riley  breeding  cage 
The  Comstock  improved  base 
A  good  simple  aquarium 
Pocket  cyanide  bottle 
Spreading  board  for  Lepidoptera 
Insect  mounted  on  cardboard  triangle 
Triangle  punch 
Points  for  mounting  insects 
The  Marx  tray  for  alcohol   specimens 


use 


for  breeding  case 


343 
343 
343 
344 
345 
347 
348 

349 
350 
353 

soldiers  354 

363 
382 

383 


and  enlarged  parts  387 
390 
390 
390 
39' 
39' 
392 

393 
393 
396 

397 
400 
401 
402 
402 
402 
403 
403 


THE   INSECT   BOOK 


ORDER       HYMENOPTERA 

This  great  order  of  insects,  which  contains  the  bees,  wasps, 
ants,  gall-tlies,  saw-flies,  ichneumon-flies  and  related  forms  is 
unsurpassed  in  interest  by  any  other  group  of  animals.  It  is  a 
very  large  order,  and  comprises  nearly  30,000  described  species; 
but  the  enormous  number  of  undescribed  species,  particularly  of 
the  smaller  parasitic  forms  inhabiting  tropical  regions  and  other 
out-of-the-way  localities  would  probably  swell  this  number  to 
more  than  300,000.  To  indicate  the  work  still  to  be  done  in  this 
order  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  day's  collecting  in  Central  Park,  New 
York,  almost  under  the  windows  of  the  great  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  or  in  Logan  Square,  Philadelphia,  within  200 
yards  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  would  result  in  the 
capture  of  a  number  of  species  new  to  science.  But  the  size  of 
the  order  is  its  least  important  and  interesting  feature.  The  very 
great  variation  in  habits  and  life  history,  the  wonderful  social 
organization  of  the  bees,  ants  and  some  wasps,  the  seeming  mar- 
vellous intelligence  of  these  creatures,  the  remarkable  adaptations 
of  structure  to  environment,  the  extraordinary  interrelations  and 
interdependencies  of  species  seen  with  the  members  of  the 
parasitic  families,  the  strange  vital  phenomena  of  sex-abortion, 
of  virgin  birth  or  parthenogenesis,  and  the  wonderful  plant  de- 
formations brought  about  by  the  gall-makers,  unite  to  render  the 
Hymenoptera  a  field  of  study  of  never-ending  interest. 

As  a  group  the  Hymenoptera  are  distinguished  from  other 
insects  by  the  following  points:  Their  metamorphoses  are  com- 
plete, their  mouth  parts  are  mandibulate,  and  in  most  families 
formed  for  biting,  although  in  the  bees  they  are  so  modified  as 
to  form  a  sort  or  proboscis,  and  the  females  are  furnished  with 
an  extensile  sting  or  ovipositor.  All  have  four  wings,  of  which 
the  hind  pair  is  smaller.  The  wings  are  membranous,  usually 
transparent,  bear  no  scales,  and  are  divided  by  veins  or  nervures, 
as  they  are  inappropriately  and  misleadingly  called,  into  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  cells. 

On  account  of  the  great  diversity  of  form  and  structure 
which  exists  within  these  limits,   the  Hymenoptera  have  long 


Order  Hymenoptera. 

been  divided  into  many  families  and  subfamilies.  Mr.  W.  H. 
Ashmead  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  whose  great 
work  on  this  order  has  placed  him  at  the  head  of  all  living 
authorities  on  the  Hymenoptera,  has  recently  given  us  as  the 
result  of  his  prolonged  studies  an  arrangement  of  this  enormous 
complex  of  forms  into  ten  super-f;imilies,  and  for  the  sake  of  sim- 
plicity our  consideration  of  the  order  will  follow  his  classification 
at  the  risk  of  some  slight  temporary  confusion  in  the  minds  of 
those  familiar  with  other  general  works  on  insects.  The  corre- 
spondence between  physical  structure  and  habits  and  mode  of 
life,  however,  is  so  marked  in  the  Hymenoptera,  that  these 
structural  super-families  are  really  habit  super-families  as  well. 

Economically  considered  the  Hymenoptera  as  a  whole  is  a 
beneficial  group  in  its  relation  to  man.  Aside  from  the  honey 
industry  dependent  upon  the  honey  bee,  thousands  of  the 
parasitic  forms  destroy  noxious  insects,  very  many  forms  are  of 
the  utmost  importance  as  cross  fertilizers  of  trees  and  plants, 
and  certain  galls  have  a  distinct  value  in  commerce. 

In  the  different  aspects  of  the  study  of  this  great  group 
there  is  room  for  a  small  army  of  workers. 


TABLE  OF  SUBORDERS  AND  SUPER-FAMILIES. 

Suborder   HETEROPHAGA,     Ashmead.     Abdomen    much   nar- 
rowed at  its  attachment  to  the  thorax.     Larvae  legless. 

Suborder  PHYTOPHAGA,    Latreille.     Abdomen   broad   at  its 
attachment  to  the  thorax.     Larvse  with  legs. 


Heterophaga. 

Underside  of  last  segment  of  the  abdomen  not  divided 
longitudinally;  the  sting  or  ovipositor,  when  present, 
always  issuing  from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen i 

Underside  of  last  segment  of  the  abdomen  divided;  ovipos- 
itor issuing  some  distance  before  the  tip  of  abdomen; 
trochanters  always  two-jointed 5 

I — Pronotum  not  extending  back  to  the  tegulae 2 

Pronotum  extending  back  to  tf-gulae,  or  the  latter  are  absent  •  3 


Plate  II. 

BEES 

FIG. 

FIG. 

I. 

Bombus  terricola  $ 

'=;• 

2. 

Bombus  moderatus 

16. 

3- 

Bombus  nevadensis 

'T- 

4- 

Bombus  bimaculatus  $ 

IS. 

5- 

Bombus  terricola  ? 

19. 

6. 

Bombus  afFmis 

20. 

7- 

Bombus  sonomae 

21. 

8. 

Bombus  bimaculatus  ? 

22. 

9- 

Bombus  bifarius 

23- 

lO. 

Bombus  vagans 

24. 

1 1. 

Empiioropsis  miserabilis 

2S. 

12. 

Bombus  fervidus 

26. 

13- 

Bombus  improbus 

27. 

14. 

Apathus  insularis 

Bombus  californicus 
Anthophora  smithii 
Antiiopliora  edwardsii 
Eusynlialonia  edwardsii 
Synhalonia  atriventris 
Amegiila  marginata 
Anthophora  occidentalis 
Apathus  laboriosus 
Apathus  citrinus 
Anthedon  compta 
Xylocopa  aeneipennis 
Xylocopa  orpifex 
Xylocopa  texana 


The  Insect  Book. 


Order  Hymenoptera 

2 — Tarsi   dilated  or  thickened;  hairs  of  head  and  thorax  feath- 
ery   Super-family  Apoidea 

Tarsi  slender;  hairs  on  head  and  thorax  simple 

Super-family  Sphecoidea. 

} — Trochanters    always     one-jointed,   (except     in     the     family 

Trigonalids.) 4 

Trochanters   two-jointed    (except   in  the  family  Pelecinidae,) 
Super-family  Proctoiiypoidca. 

4 — Petiole,  or  first  segment  of  abdomen  simple,  without  swel- 
lings; winged  forms  with    well-developed  tegulae 

Super-fiimily  l^espoi'dea. 

Petiole  with  one  or  two  swellings;  winged  forms  without  or 

with  imperfectly  formed  tegulae.. Super-family  Formicoidea. 

<y — Front  wings  with  the  marginal  vein,  if  present,  linear,  never 

large  or  stigmated 6 

Front  wings  with  a  stigma;  the  marginal  vein  usually  large 

and  stigmated Super-family  Ichueumoiioidea, 

6 — Pronotum  extending  back  to  the  tegulae 

Super-family  Cynipoidea. 

Pronotum  not  extending  back  to  the  teguloe 

Super-family  Chakidoidea. 

Phytophaga. 

Tibiae  of  forelegs  with  one  apical  spur 

Super-family  Siricoidea. 

Tibiae  of  forelegs  with  two  apical  spurs 

Super-family  Tenthredinoidea. 


THE  TRUE  BEES 

(Super-family  Apoidea) 

This  great  group,  comprising  about  five  thousand  species,  in- 
cludes all  of  the  true  bees,  both  the  honey-gatherers  which  have 
social  communities  and  live  a  strict  community  life,   and  the 

solitary  bees.     We 
.  ^  '"--  1  -  -  have    already  seen 

inthetableof  super- 
families  that  the 
hind  feet  of  these 
insects  are  dilated 
or  thickened,  and 
that  the  hairs  of  the 
head  and  thorax  are 
feathery.  These  pe- 
culiar feathery  hairs 
are  found  only 
in  the  true  bees, 
which  also  differ 
from  other  Hymen- 
optera  by  the  pecu- 
liar modification  of 
the  mouth -parts 
which  are  length- 
ened into  a  struc- 
ture which  is  almost 
like  a  proboscis. 
It  is  a  very  conspic- 
uous organ  and  is 
fitted  in  many  of 
them  for  probing 
deep  flowers  and 
for  gathering  nec- 
tar. The  mandi- 
bles or  upper  jaws 


-Head  and  tongue  of  worker  honey  bee. 
( Redraiun  fro7n  Cheshire.) 


The  True  Bees 


play  no  part  in  this  proboscis-like  structure,  which  is  composed 
entirely  of  lower  lip  and  lower  jaws,  both  greatly  lengthened. 

The  eggs  of  all  bees  are  laid  in  cells  of  one  kind  or  another  in 
which  the  larvie  develop.     Sometimes  they  are  fed  by  the  adult 


f^.tl- 


Fig.  2. — Head  of  A,  queen  ;  B,  drone  of  honey  bee  ( Frctm  Cheshire.) 

bees  and  sometimes  a  supply  of  food  is  stored  in  the  cell  so  that 
after  the  egg  is  laid  and  the  cell  is  completely  closed  the  mother 
has  no  more  responsibilty  for  the  growth  and  development  of  her 
offspring. 

It  is  among  the  higher  and  more  specialized  bees  that  we  see 
for  the  first  time  the  extraordinary  community  life  which  is  de- 
veloped among  them  and  certain  other  Hymenoptera,  such  as 
certain  social  wasps  and  ants,  and  practically  nowhere  else,  ex- 
cept among  the  so-called  white  ants  or  Termites,  which  belong 
to  quite  a  different  order.  With  the  social  bees  we  find  a  most 
perfect  communism  ;  each  individual  works  for  the  good  of  the 
community,  and  thus  only  indirectly  for  its  own  ends. 

in  the  evolution  of  this  community  life  strange  things  have 
happened.  There  has  come  to  be  a  class  of  individuals  which 
are  practically  sexless,  and  are  called  neuters  or  workers.  These 
individuals  do  the  mechanical  work  of  the  community.  They 
are  really  structurally  females  in  which  the  development  of  the 
sexual  organs  has  ceased  at  a  certain  point.  They  are  undevel- 
oped and  infertile  females.  The  other  two  sexes  are  represented, 
but  the  number  of  true  females,  or  queens  as  they  are  called,  is 
small,  only  a  sufficient  number  being  found  to  supply  eggs  for 
the  perpetuation  of  the  community.  The  males  are  aptly  termed 
drones,  since  they  are  drones  in  comparison  with  the  active  and 
S 


The  True  Bees 

hard-working  neuters  or  workers.  Their  function  in  the  com- 
munity is  simply  to  fertilize  the  queens  at  the  proper  time,  and 
then  they  are  of  no  further  use  in  the  world. 

The  Apoidea  are  now  subdivided  into  no  less  than  fourteen 
fuUfledged  families.  These  include  the  Apidae,  or  true  honey 
bees,  the  Bombidae,  or  bumblebees,  the  solitary  bees  of  the 
Anthophoridae,  the  cuckoo  bees  of  the  family  Nomadidae,  the 
small  carpenter  bees  of  the  family  Ceratinidae,  the  large  carpenter 
bees  of  the  family  Xylocopidae,  the  mason,  leaf-cutting  and 
potter  bees  of  the  family  Megachilidae,  the  parasitic  bees  of  the 
family  Stelidae,  the  sharp-tongued  burrowing  bees  of  the  family 
Andrenidffi;  the  blunt-tongued  burrowing  bees  of  the  family 
CoUetidse,  and  others. 

The  habits  of  the  bees  of  these  diverse  families  vary  greatly, 
and  most  of  the  characteristics  which  they  have  in  common  have 
already  been  referred  to.  All,  from  their  flower-visiting  habits, 
are  of  great  importance  in  the  cross  fertilization  of  plants,  and 
without  their  aid  the  health  of  the  plant  world  would  suffer  and 
its  infinite  variety  would  hardly  have  been  achieved. 

The  most  famous  of  all  bees  is  naturally  the  common  honey 
bee,  an  importation  from  Europe,  not  a  native,  which  by  the 
hand  of  man  has  become  a  true  domesticated  animal.  The  life 
history  of  this  creature  has  been  so  often  written  about  and  may 
so  easily  be  learned  by  consulting  any  encyclopedia  or  standard 
general  work  of  reference  that  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  de- 
scribe it  in  detail  here.  The  methods  of  bee  culture  in  use  admit 
of  ready  study  of  its  economy.*  In  this  brief  summary  of  the 
general  characteristics  of  bees  we  shall,  therefore,  confine  our- 
selves to  the  wild  and  less  known  forms.  A  bumblebee  has  been 
selected  for  the  typical  life  history,  and  little  need  therefore  be 
said  of  the  large  and  important  family  to  which  that  species  be- 
longs, except  to  state  that  bumblebees  now  occur  in  most  parts 
of  the  world,  and  that  they  are  especially  abundant  in  temperate 
and  even  boreal  regions,  large  numbers  inhabiting  far  northern 
localities  where  they  abound  in  the  brief  artic  summer,  and  where 
they  live  a  short  but  extremely  busy  life  on  account  of  the 
crowding  together  of  the  flowering  periods  of  sub-polar  plants. 

*One  of  the  strongest  bits  of  descriptive  writing  known  to  me  is  Tolstoi's  de- 
scription of  a  queenless  bee  hive,  in  "  War  and  Peace,"  where  he  likens  Moscow  on 
the  approach  of  the  French  army  to  a  hive  deserted  by  the  queen  bee. 

6 


The  True  Bees 


The  solitary  bees  of  the  family  Anthophoridae  are  in  general 
thickly  clothed  with  hair,  and  many  of  them  burrow  into  the 
earth,  forming  tunnels  in  which  they  form  earthern  cells,  staring 

them  with  a  supply  of  pollen 
and  honey  upon  which  the 
egg  is  laid  and  the  cell  is  then 
closed. 

Much  good  work  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  accurate 
observation  upon  the  members 
of  this  group  ;  the  length  of 
the  larval  life,  duration  of  the 
egg  stage,  and  other  points 
have  not  been  accurately  fol- 
lowed out,  although  some  of 
the  European  species  are  fairly 
well  known.  Certain  species 
bore  into  wood  instead  of  en- 
tering the  earth,  or  they  oc- 
cupy old  burrows  of  some 
carpenter  bee.  There  are  cer- 
tain curious  parasites  of  these 
bees,  and  the  life  of  one  of 
them  has  been  studied  by  the  English  observer  Newport. 

The  cuckoo  bees  of  the  family  Nomadidas  without  exception 
live  parasitically  in  the  nest  of  other  bees,  and  have  undoubtedly 
originated  from  other  bees  through 
different  lines  of  descent — probably 
from  those  of  the  group  just  men- 
tioned. As  their  parasitic  habits 
would  prepare  us  to  learn,  their  legs 
are  without  the  scopa  for  the  car- 
riage of  pollen,  and  their  life  is 
practically  that  of  the  cuckoo,  the 
female  laying  her  eggs  in  cells  al- 
ready prepared  by  some  more  in- 
dustrious and  conscientious  bee, 
and  her  larvae  living  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  offspring  of  the  cell- 
maker. 

7 


Fig.  3. — Queen  cells  and  worker  brood  of 
honey  bees.     (From  Benton.) 


Fig.  4. — Queen  of  the  common 
honey  bee.    (From  Benton.) 


The  True  Bees 

Curiously  enough,  these  bees  seem  to  be  on  perfectly  good 
terms  with  their  hosts,  visiting  flowers  in  their  company  and 
visiting  their  burrows  as  unconcernedly  as  though  they  were  the 
result  of  their  own  labors.  Emerton  has  observed  that  there  is 
frequently  enough  food  for  the  larva  of  the  cell-maker  and  the 


Fig.  5. — Legs  of  different  bees  :  A,  Apis ;  B,  Melipona ;  C,  Bombus. 
(From  Insect  Life.) 


larva  of  the  cuckoo  bee,  and  that  they  both  thrive  and  issue  as 
adults  simultaneously.  This  cuckoo  life  is  found  with  bees  of 
certain  other  groups,  and  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  rather  smooth  and  active  little  bees  of  the  family  Cera- 
tinidje,  which  have  been  termed  small  carpenter  bees,  are  ex- 
tremely interesting  creatures,  and  are  generally  metallic  blue, 
blue-black  or  bright  green  four-winged  flies,  not  hairy,  and  are 
very  active  in  the  summer  time.  They  bore  tunnels  into  the 
stems  of  pithy  plants  and  form  their  cells  in  these  burrows. 
They  are  very  commonly  found  in  brambles.  The  cells  are  lined 
with  a  delicate  silky  membrane  and  are  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  mud  partitions.  The  common  Ceraiina  diipla  is  a 
familiar  example.  With  this  bee  the  cells  are  filled  with  a  paste 
of  honey  and  pollen  upon  which  the  larvae  feed.  The  trans- 
formation to  imago  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  July  or  during 
August 

From  the  cells  of  this  bee  two  very  remarkable  parasites  have 
been  reared  by  the  Rev.  J.  L.  Zabriskie,  namely  Diamoriis  labris- 
kii,  Cres.,  and  Axima  \ahrishii.  How. 
8 


The  True  Bees 

The  large  carpenter  bees,  however,  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  the  stems  of  plants.  Their  burrows  are  so  large  that 
they  are  frequently  made  in  the  dead  trunks  of  old  trees  and  com- 
monly in  lumber,  and  even  in  the  joists  of  buildings.  The 
commonest  of  the  large  carpenter  bees  in  this  country  is  Xyloco- 
pa  virginica.  This  large  black-bodied  bee,  as  big  as  the  biggest 
bumblebee,  but  with  a  flatter  and  less  hairy  abdomen,  bores 
symmetrical  tunnels  into  solid  wood,  choosing  in  civilized  regions 
fence  posts  and  boards.  The  burrow  is  a  half-inch  in  diameter, 
and  runs  horizontally  across  the  grain  for  about  the  length  of  the 
insect's  body,  and  is  then  turned  downward  at  right  angles  and 
runs  with  the  grain  from  tvv'elve  to  eighteen  inches.  In  this  bor- 
ing the  bee  progresses  at  the  average  rate  of  about  half  an  inch 
a  day,  occupying  at  least  two  days  in  digging  the  first  portion 
against  the  grain  of  the  wood.  After  the  burrow  is  once  com- 
menced, their  persistence  in  returning  to  continue  the  work,  in  spite 
of  all  obstacles,  is  very  remarkable.    One  of  these  indefatigable  bees 


-Legs  of  different  bees  :    a,   Aputhophora ;    b,   Melissodis ;    c,   Perdita ; 
d,  Nomada;  e,  Agapostemon;  f,  Nomia.     (From  Insect  Life.) 


once  Started  a  burrow  in  a  lintel  over  the  front  door  of  the  writer's 
house  in  Georgetown.  She  was  repeatedly  driven  away,  was 
struck  with  a  broom  a  number  of  times,  and  finally  ceased  from 
her  labors  only  because  kerosene  was  squirted  at  her  through  a 
syringe  with  accurate  aim.  It  was  the  hand  of  death  alone  which 
released  her  from  her  work. 

9 


The  True  Bees 

The  tunnels  generally  run  in  opposite  directions  from  the 
opening,  and  sometimes  other  galleries  are  made,  one  parallel 
with  the  other,  using  a  common  opening. 

While  we  may  admire  the  industry  of  the  carpenter  bee  in 
doing  all  this  hard  work  for  its  young,  it  is  not  averse  to  an  easy 
thing,  and  will  use  the  same  burrow  over  again,  and  if  an  old 
deserted  burrow  can  be  found  which  was  made  the  previous 
summer,  or  even  several  years  previously,  it  is  preferred  to  the 
drudgery  of  making  a  new  one.  Moreover,  there  are  other  bees 
which  will  pre-empt  the  deserted  burrows  of  the  carpenter  bees. 

After  the  tunnels  are  prepared  the  cells  are  made  and  sup- 
plied with  pollen.  With  the  species  under  consideration  the 
cells  are  about  seven-tenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  partitions  which  are  made  up  of  a  single 
flattened  band  of  sawdust  and  fine  chips  glued  together  and 
rolled  up  into  a  flat  partition  about  four  layers  deep.  The  side 
forming  the  bottom  of  the  cell  is  concave  and  smooth,  while  the 
other  side  is  flat  and  rough. 

Even  about  the  common  carpenter  bee  there  is  much  yet  to 
be  learned,  and  a  careful  series  of  studies  carried  through  an  en- 
tire season  cannot  fail  to  show  novel  facts. 

The  mason  bees  of  the  family  Megachilidse  (sub-family 
Osmiinse)  derive  their  name  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
construct  small  earthen  cells  under  stones,  in  the  burrows  of 
other  bees,  in  decaying  wood,  in  deserted  snail  shells,  in  old 
galls,  and  elsewhere.  These  bees  show  a  great  diversity  of 
habit.  Their  cells  are  constructed  of  sand,  earth  or  clay  mixed 
with  pebbles  and  wood  scrapings,  but  glued  together  so  firmly 
that  they  are  smooth  inside.  Ten  to  twenty  of  them  are  usually 
found  together,  and  each  one  contains  a  store  of  honey  and  pol- 
len, for  the  larvK,  of  which  only  one  is  found  in  each  cell. 

One  of  these  bees  (Ceratosmia  (Osmia)  lignivora  Packard) 
has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Packard  to  be  a  true  wood-borer.  He  saw 
it  make  a  tunnel  three  inches  long  in  maple  wood,  the  tunnel 
containing  five  cells  and  the  partitions  being  made  of  wood 
chippings. 

The  leaf-cutting  bees  of  the  same  family  are  common  crea- 
tures whose  habits  are  extremely  interesting.  They  derive  their 
name  from  the  fact  that  they  cut  pieces  out  of  the  tender  leaves 
of  various  trees  with  which  to  form  their  cells.     The  leaf-cutters 


Plate  111. 

BEES 

FIG. 

FIG. 

1. 

Xenoglossa  piuinosa 

20. 

2. 

Andrena  retlexa 

21. 

3- 

Andrena  vicina 

22. 

4- 

Megachile  ininiica 

23. 

=)• 

Megachile  brevis 

24. 

6. 

Halictus  lerouxii 

2S- 

7- 

Eutechnia  taurea 

26. 

8. 

Paranomia  nortoni 

27. 

9- 

Megachile  pollinaris 

28. 

lO. 

Ccelioxys  8-dentata 

29. 

1 1. 

Agapostemon  radiatus 

30. 

12. 

Megachile  infragilis 

3'- 

■3- 

Osmia  distincta 

32. 

14. 

Agapostemon  splendens 

33- 

IS. 

Paranomia  nortoni 

34- 

16. 

Melissodes  bimaculata 

3t- 

'T- 

Melissodes pennsylvanicus        36. 

IS. 

Osmia  canadensis 

37- 

19. 

Cerceris  venator 

38. 

Larra  analis 
Larra  torsata 
Oxybelus  4-notatus 
Tachytes  distincta 
Xylocopa  micans 
Tachytes  validus 
Ericrocis  fumipennis 
Nysson  plagiatus 
Melissodes  belfragei 
Xylocopa  arizonensis 
Anthophora  abrupta 
Philanthus  solidagus 
Nomada  bicincta 
Philanthus  ventralis 
Cerceris  compacta 
Apathus  variabilis 
Bombus  morrisonii 
Bombus  morrisonii 
Philanthus  punctatus 


The  Insect  Book. 


The  True  Bees 

are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  look  much  like  bumble- 
bees. The  pieces  of  leaf  which  they  cut  out  very  neatly  are 
either  oblong  or  circular,  the  former  being  used  for  the  sides  and 
the  latter  to  cover  the  end  of  the  cell.  The  burrows  which  they 
use  vary  greatly  in  situation.  Some  burrow  into  the  ground, 
others  into  soft  wood,  while  others  make  use  of  chance  tunnels. 
1  have  seen  them  in  accidental  auger  holes,  and  in  lead  pipe,  and 
once  knew  the  nozzle  of  an  old  pump  to  be  packed  full  of  cells. 
According  to  Professor  Putnam,  a  single  female  observed  by  him 
took  twenty  days  to  complete  and  provision  a  series  of  cells  un- 
der a  board.  He  found  there  were  thirty  cells  in  nine  rows  of 
varying  numbers.  An  estimate  of  the  number  of  bits  of  leaf  used 
in  the  construction  of  these  thirty  cells  amounted  to  more  than  a 
thousand. 

The  potter  bees  of  this  same  family  construct  small  globular 
cells  of  earth  and  attach  them  to  the  stem  of  a  plant. 

The  parasitic  bees  of  the  family  Stelidse  live,  like  the  No- 
madids,  in  the  nests  of  other  bees,  choosing  indifferently  the 
cell  of  almost  any  kind  of  bee,  no  matter  what  its  situation.  No 
observations  on  any  of  the  American  species  have  been  recorded, 
and  here  is  an  interesting  field  of  study. 

The  habits  of  the  European  species  Stelis  minnta  have  been 
observed  with  some  care.  It  was  found  to  be  parasitic  in  the 
nest  of  one  of  the  mason  bees,  a  female  having  laid  her  egg  in 
the  cell  after  it  was  partly  filled  by  the  mason  bee.  Unaware  of 
the  presence  of  the  parasitic  tgg,  the  mason  bee  continued  her 
work,  and  after  nearly  filling  the  cell  deposited  her  own  egg  on  the 
top  of  the  food  mass,  closing  the  cell  with  a  partition,  and  begin- 
ning another  one  above.  The  Stelis  larva  hatched  a  little  earlier 
than  that  of  the  mason  bee,  and  both  began  to  feed,  the  parasite 
larva  from  below  and  the  mason  bee  larva  from  above.  Unfor- 
tunately for  those  who  are  interested  in  the  triumph  of  right  and 
justice,  the  latter  grows  very  slowly  while  the  parasite  larva 
grows  more  rapidly,  and  gradually  worked  its  way  upward 
through  the  food  mass,  thus  approaching  the  mason  bee  larva. 
In  the  words  of  Riley's  summary  of  this  tragic  performance  "  the 
crisis  finally  comes— the  Stelis  larva  encounters  the  Osmia  larva  ; 
a  short  but  deadly  combat  ensues  ;  the  Osmia  larva  is  easily 
overpowered  and  killed  by  the  much  larger  and  stronger  parasite, 
and  its  body  is  devoured  by  the  latter  within  one  or  two  days." 


The  True  Bees 

The  sharp-tongued  burrowing  bees  form  a  very  large  group, 
with  many  common  species  which  fly  actively  through  the  sum- 
mer. The  cells  as  a  rule  are  made  in  burrows  or  tunnels  in  the 
ground  or  in  hard  clay  banks.  Andreiiavicina,  according  to  Em- 
erton,  digs  a  straight  tunnel  into  the  ground  for  a  depth  of  several 
inches  or  more  with  short  oblique  galleries  branching  off  from  it. 
The  earthen  cells  lined  with  mucus  are  filled  with  pollen  and 
honey.  This  is  all  done  in  the  latter  part  of  April  and  early  in 
May.  The  larvae  are  full  grown  in  less  than  five  weeks,  and  the 
adult  bees  issue  all  through  July  and  August.  To  this  group  be- 
long the  beautiful  little  bees  of  the  genus  Halictus,  which  are 
often  metallic  in  color.  They  dig  branched  tunnels  to  a  depth  of 
from  six  to  ten  inches  and  are  semi-gregarious  in  habit,  a  great 
many  of  the  burrows  often  being  found  close  together.  Emerton 
has  studied  the  habits  of  H.  paralleliis,  and  states  that  this  bee 
has  two  generations  each  year. 

The  blunt-tongued  burrowing  bees  live  much  like  those  bees 
which  we  have  just  mentioned,  constructing  their  burrows  in  hard 
clay  soil  or  in  the  cracks  in  stone  walls,  but  the  bees  of  the  allied 
lamily  Prosopidse  which  have  been  called  by  Ashmead  the 
obtuse-tongued  carpenter  bees,  burrow  into  the  twigs  of  bramble, 
elder  and  other  shrubs,  in  which  after  extracting  the  pith,  they 
construct  their  cells  filled  with  pollen  and  honey.  The  Prosopi- 
dae  used  to  be  considered  parasitic,  but  the  English  observer, 
Frederick  Smith,  discovered  their  true  habits  a  good  many  years 
ago.  Mr.  R.  C.  L.  Perkins  has  recently  stated,  however,  that 
some  of  the  Hawaiian  bees  belonging  to  his  genus  Neoprosopis 
are  genuine  parasites. 


Life  History  of  a  Bumblebee 

(Bovibus  fe7'vid?is  Fabr.^ 

In  our  generalization  on  the  habits  of  the  true  bees  we  said 
little  about  the  bumblebees,  preferring  to  let  this  typical  life 
history  speak  for  itself  The  bumblebees  belong  to  the  group  of 
social  bees,  although  their  communities  are  by  no  means  as  large 
or  as  perfect  as  those  of  the  domesticated  honey  bee,  nor  in  fact 
is  the  differentiation  of  the  worker  class  so  marked  as  with  the 
honey  bee.      The  workers,  in  fact,  more   nearly   resemble  the 


The  True  Bees 

females  and  have  few  of  the  structural  peculiarities  which  are  so 
evident  with  the  workers  of  the  honey  bee.  The  bumblebee 
worker  stings  severely  and  this  fact  makes  the  close  study  of  their 
community  life  rather  difficult.  It  is  comparatively  easy,  however, 
to  study  a  bumblebee's  nest.  Marlatt,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Entomological  Society  of  Washington,  tells  how  the  boys  in 
Kansas  avoid  the  stings  and  gather  the  honey.  He  said  that  they 
(and  he  was  one  of  them)  were  led  to  rob  these  nests  more  from 
the  excitement  caused  by  the  danger  of  being  stung  than  to  secure 
the  honey,  which,  in  fact,  was  not  only  rank  and  unpalatable  but 
in  the  early  fall,  during  the  haying  season,  was  small  in  quantity. 
The  method  followed  was  to  take  a  one-or-two-gallon  jug,  such 
as  is  commonly  used  to  carry  water  to  haymakers,  fill  it  partly 
with  water  and  place  it,  with  the  cork  removed,  within  two  or 
three  feet  of  the  nest.  The  bees  were  then  thoroughly  aroused 
by  beating  the  nest,  immediately  after  which  the  brave  boys  re- 
moved themselves  hurriedly  to  a  safe  distance.  The  enraged 
bees  would  swarm  out  and  begin  flying  about  in  widening  circles 
to  discover  the  enemy.  The  jug  would  at  once  attract  their  at- 
tention and  numbers  would  fly  about  it  and  over  its  open  mouth, 
which,  by  reason  of  the  air  set  in  motion  by  their  wings,  would 
give  an  answering  roar  to  their  angry  humming.  Excited  beyond 
measure  by  this  noise,  the  bees  would  fly  at  the  mouth  of  the  jug 
and  one  after  another  would  pop  into  it — the  noise  produced  by 
those  within  still  further  attracting  those  without — until  all  had 
entered.  A  second  disturbance  of  the  nest  would  serve  to  draw 
out  and  dispose  of  any  of  the  remaining  fighting  worker-bees, 
after  which  the  robbing  of  the  nest  was  easy.  After  robbing  the 
nest  the  water  and  bees  in  the  jug  were  emptied  out  on  the 
ground  and  the  bees,  although  apparently  drowned,  would  soon 
recover  and  start  off  to  found  new  colonies  which  other  boys 
would  probably  rob.  In  later  years  when  Mr.  Marlatt  became 
interested  in  the  collection  and  study  of  insects  this  method  was 
employed  with  unvarying  success  in  the  examination  of  bumble- 
bees' nests  in  order  to  secure  parasites  and  the  guest  insects 
which  inhabit  these  nests.  This  method  seems  to  be  a  discovery 
of  the  western  farm-boys,  since  the  writer,  although  he  robbed 
bumblebees'  nests  in  central  New  York  when  a  boy  was  never 
ingenious  enough  to  invent  such  a  capital  method  of  avoiding 
stings. 


The  True  Bees 

Bombus  fervidus,  also  called  Bombus  borealis,  is  a  species 
which  is  common  in  Canada  and  the  northeastern  United  States 
with  something  of  a  southern  and  western  range  and  is  a  fairly 
typical  bumblebee.  At  the  approach  of  winter  the  old  colonies 
fail,  the  workers  and  the  drones,  or  males,  die  and  only  a  few 
fertilized  females  remain  alive.  These  hide  themselves  away  in 
protected  places,  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  condition  and  when 
spring  comes  each  one  starts  out  to  found  a  new  colony.  She 
collects  moss  or  grass  and  pollen,  seeks  some  depression  in  the 
field  and  begins  a  waxen  cell  under  the  grass  or  moss.  Old 
nests  of  field  mice  are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  In  this 
cell,  which  is  stored  with  honey  intermingled  with  a  small 
quantity  of  pollen,  is  laid  an  egg  and  the  formation  of  another 
cell  begins  at  once.  Along  in  July  the  nest  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain a  queen  with  a  large  number  of  workers  of  various  sizes,  as 
well  as  eggs  and  larvae  in  all  stages  of  development.  Interesting 
observations  upon  this  species  have  been  made  by  Mr.  F.  V. 
Coville,  who,  although  a  famous  botanist,  ought  to  have  been  an 
entomologist,  judging  from  his  study  of  this  insect.  The  precise 
duties  of  the  different  sized  workers,  according  to  this  observer, 
are  not  evident  but  in  general  the  larger  ones  attend  to  the  mend- 
ing of  the  covering  of  the  nest  and  to  the  bringing  in  of  honey, 
while  the  smaller  ones  for  the  most  part  do  the  inside  housework, 
the  wax  patching  and  the  nursing  of  the  young.  He  never  saw 
this  nursing,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  done  by  a  large  or  even  a  medium- 
sized  bee.  The  eggs  are  laid  several  together  in  cavities  in  a 
mass  of  wax  in  which,  however,  are  many  pollen  grains.  The 
larvae  after  hatching  remain  encased  in  a  shell  of  wax  and  soon 
become  separated  each  from  the  other  by  a  waxen  wall.  Here 
they  are  fed  by  a  mixture  of  pollen  and  honey  supplied  them  by 
a  worker.  One  of  the  smaller  workers,  which  Coville  has  called 
the  nurse  bees,  collects  nectar  and  then  pollen,  preparing  the 
mixture,  and  then  goes  to  one  of  the  larvae,  which  lie  in  circular 
form  in  their  chambers,  and  injects  the  brownish,  fluid  mixture 
through  a  small  opening  previously  made,  usually  by  another 
worker.  This  is  greedily  eaten  by  the  larvas.  Whether  the  larvae 
of  both  females  and  workers  are  fed  in  the  same  manner  and  with 
the  same  mixture  could  not  be  decided,  but  it  is  known  that  in 
the  honey  bee  the  different  kind  of  food  influences  the  size  and  the 
function  of  the  bees,  a  special  food  being  used  to  develop  queens. 
14 


The  True  Bees 

The  larvffi  when  full  grown  spin  a  silk  cocoon  and  transform 
to  pupae,  in  which  stage  they  remain  from  two  to  three  weeks 
and  then  transform  to  perfect  bumblebees.  The  bees  emerge 
from  the  cocoon  after  gnawing  a  lid  about  its  apex.  As  soon  as 
the  bee  has  left,  the  other  workers  cut  away  the  upper  half  of  the 
cell  and  remove  the  debris,  and  the  part  which  is  left  furnishes  a 
receptacle  for  nectar  and  honey  as  it  is  brought  into  the  nest. 

In  early  August,  all  the  bees  up  to  this  time  having  been 
workers  with  the  exception  of  the  original  queen,  females,  or 
queens,  and  males,  or  drones,  begin  to  emerge.  Within  a  few 
days  both  sexes  leave  the  old  nest  and  do  not  return. 

The  method  adopted  by  Coville  for  the  study  of  this  species 
is  an  easy  and  convenient  one  and  is  worthy  of  description.  A 
box  about  three  inches  deep  and  large  enough  to  contain  a  nest 
(a  good-sized  cigar-box  will  do)  was  provided  with  a  glass  cover 
and  a  small  hole  was  cut  in  the  side.  In  this  box  in  the  early 
summer  a  nest  taken  from  the  field  was  placed  and  the  aperture 
was  closed  for  a  day.  The  box  was  then  fitted  in  below  a 
window-sash  so  that  the  bees  could  come  and  go  on  the  outside 
without  annoying  the  observer,  who  remained  in  the  room.  In 
collecting  the  nest,  which  had  been  found  during  the  day,  the 
observer  started  for  the  field  just  before  dark,  after  all  the  bees 
were  in,  provided  with  a  cigar-box,  a  bottle  of  chloroform,  a  pair 
of  forceps  and  a  gauze-covered,  wide-mouthed  bottle.  He 
approached  the  nest,  poured  a  little  chloroform  over  it,  waited 
until  the  humming  had  ceased,  opened  the  top  of  the  nest,  picked 
out  the  bees  with  the  forceps  and  put  them  in  the  bottle,  the 
nest  with  the  "comb"  being  placed  in  the  cigar-box.  The  bees 
revive  after  being  placed  in  the  permanent  box,  and  the  chloro- 
form, if  used  moderately,  does  not  kill  the  larvae. 

The  study  of  the  life  of  a  colony  of  bumblebees  will  be  found 
to  be  a  very  interesting  one,  especially  if  observations  are  made 
upon  the  parasites  and  guest  insects,  or  inquilines,  which  are 
frequently  found  in  these  nests.  Many  interesting  points  as  to 
unimportant  habits,  especially  as  they  bear  upon  the  question  of 
inherited  instinct  or  intelligence,  may  be  observed  in  this  way. 
For  example,  these  bees  are  very  cleanly  in  their  habits.  Their 
faeces  are  always  deposited  in  a  particular  place  outside  the  nest. 

Some  of  the  guest  bees  frequently  found  in  bumblebee  nests 
belong  to  the  genus  Apathus,  or  Psithyrus,  as  it  is  now  called. 
IS 


The  True  Bees 

These  bees  resemble  bumblebees  so  closely  that  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  them  and  they  live  apparently  in  perfect 
harmbny  with  bumblebees,  but  are  lazy  and  use  the  food  of  the 
industrious  bumblebees,  both  when  adult  and  when  in  the  larval 
condition.  Bumblebees  resent  the  introduction  of  one  of  these 
guest  bees  into  their  nest,  but  the  intruder  seems  to  have  very 
pleasant  manners  for  the  alarm  and  resentment  occasioned  by  his 
or  her  presence  soon  dies  away  and  an  amicable  relationship 
succeeds.  Whether  the  guest  bee  and  its  larvae  consume  so 
much  food  (they  undoubtedly  bring  in  some  themselves)  that 
they  endanger  the  health  of  the  colony  of  bumblebees  is  a  dis- 
puted point.  The  old  idea  was  that  they  ate  so  much  that  the 
young  bumblebees  were  starved  to  death,  and  it  was  upon  this 
supposition  that  the  writer  in  his  youth  wrote  the  following  lines 
which  perhaps  will  be  accepted  rather  on  account  of  their  apt- 
ness to  the  present  topic  than  on  account  of  their  rhythmical 
merit: 

Oh  !  an  Apathus  sat  on  a  Chrysanthemum 
A-cIeaning  her  antennae, 

And  she  little  thought  of  the  Pyrethrum 
That  would  take  her  life  away  ! 

And  there  she  sat,  a-taking  a  rest. 

And  smiled  in  a  satisfied  way, 
For  she'd  laid  ten  eggs  in  a  Bombus  nest 

And  there'd  soon  be  the  de'il  to  pay. 

For  her  offspring  dear,  her  very  first  brood. 

Would  hatch  in  a  very  short  time, 
And  no  trouble  she'd  have  a  storing  up  food. 

For  she  worked  on  the  Cuckoo  line. 

Her  young  would  hatch  ere  the  young  bumblebees. 
And  the  young  bumblebees  would  die, 

When  the  young  Apathi  would  live  at  their  ease 
And  fatten  like  pigs  in  a  sty  ! 

So  she  sat  in  the  sun,  this  wicked  old  bee, 

And  scratched  her  tibiae. 
And  chuckled  inside  in  lazy  glee 

At  the  business  she'd  done  that  day. 

But  the  Chrysanthemum  on  which  she  sat 

Belonged  to  a  neat  old  maid. 
Whose  plants  were  her  pride  (next  to  her  cat), 

And  that  day  she  was  out  on  a  raid 
i6 


The  True  Bees 


Against  Aphids  and  slugs,  with  a  Buhach-o-un 
Filled  with  Peters  &  Milco's  best,  * 

And  seeing  the  Apathus,  just  for  fun, 
She  dusted  her  yellow  vest. 

How  the  cheat  kicked  as  she  fell  on  the  ground! 
And  how  she  did  buzz  and  hum! 

But  she  never  got  well— she  never  ' '  came  round  "• 
Her  fraudulent  life  was  done. 

*  *  *  * 

From  this  little  tale  can  a  moral  be  drawn- 
How  the  bumblebee  loafs  not  a  bit; 

But  works  all  day  from  the  earliest  dawn, 
And  thus  'scaped  the  death  dealing  hit.^ 

This  moral  is  good,  but  please  don't  forget 

Those  eggs  that  the  Apathus  hid  ! 

The  Bombus  is  working  and  slaving  yet 

But  it's  all  for  the  other  one's  kid  ! 


IVASTS. 
The  Solitary  Wasps. 

( Supcr-fa-iiiily  SpJucoidca.) 

To  this  group  belong  nearly  all  of  those  insects  which  are 
known  as  the  solitary  wasps,  in  contradistinction  to  the  social 
wasps  which  form  communities  and  live  in  nests,  usually  con- 
structed of  a  paper-like  substance,  and  lead  very  much  the  same 
socialistic  life  which  we  see  in  the  social  bees.  The  solitary 
wasps,  in  the  main,  form  burrows,  just  as  do  the  solitary  bees, 
construct  cells  within  their  burrows  and  in  the  cells  provide  food 
for  their  larvse.  This  food,  however,  is  not  the  pollen  and  honey 
mixture  which  is  found  in  the  cells  of  the  solitary  bees,  but  it  is 
other  insects  which  have  been  stung  and  paralyzed  by  the  mother 
wasp.  To  this  super-family  belongs  a  large  assemblage  of  forms 
which  comprise  twelve  large  families,  the  habits  of  all  being 
rather  similar. 

Nothing  can  be  more  fascinating  than  the  study  of  the  habits 
of  the  solitary  wasps  and  no  more  readable  book  on  a  natural 
history  topic  was  ever  prepared,  not  even  excepting  the  famous 
Natural  History  of  Selbourne  or  the  general  volume  of  Kirby  and 
Spence's  Introduction,  than  that  entitled,  "On  the  Instincts  and 
Habits  of  the  Solitary  Wasps,"  by  George  W.  and  Elizabeth  G. 
Peckham,  of  Milwaukee,  published  as  Bulletin  No.  2  of  the  Wis- 
consin Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey.  The  Peckhams, 
already  noted  for  their  interesting  work  on  the  habits  of  spiders, 
and  attracted  to  the  study  of  solitary  wasps  probably  through 
observing  these  creatures  carry  off  spiders  to  stow  away  in  their 
cells  for  their  young,  havespent  many  summer  days  in  close  obser- 
vation of  these  industrious,  active  and  most  intelligent  creatures 
and  have  described  their  observations  in  the  most  charming  style. 
They  have  entered  into  the  lives  of  the  solitary  wasps  and  have 
shown  them  to  be  as  interesting  in  their  way  as  the  much-more- 
18 


Plate   IV. 
WASPS   AND   BEES 


Cnibro  singularis 
Agapostemon  texanus 
Andrena  melliventris 
CoUetes  thoracica 
Epeolus  lectus 
Crabro  interruptus 
Andrena  texana 
Epeolus  concavus 
Solenius  scaber    ^ 
Coelioxys  dubitata 
Nomada  modesta 
Melissodes  rustica 
Epeolus  donatus 
Xestocrabro  6-maculatus 
Nomada  maculata 
Melissodes  suffusa 
Epeolus  lunatus 
Pseudocrabro  chrysarginus 
Megachile  xylocopoides 


FIG. 


23- 
24- 
2S- 

26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
3'- 
3-- 
33- 
34- 
35- 
36. 

37- 
38. 


Nomada  belfragei 
Melissodes  obliqua 
Sphecodes  dichroa 
Anthidium  interruptum 
Megachile  mendica 
Nomada  grandis 
Melissodes  perplexa 
Larra  americana 
Antiiidium  palliventris 
Megachile  bucephala 
Microbembex  monodonta 
Melissodes  menuacha 
Anthidium  zebratum 
Monia  apacha 
Megachile  pruina 
Bembex  obsoleta 
Melissodes  confusa 
Monia  heteropoda 


The  Insect  Book 


Wasps 

written-about  bees  and  ants.  Their  ingenuity  in  capturing  their 
prey,  the  care  with  which  they  conceal  their  burrows,  the  differ- 
ent individuality  among  members  of  the  same  species,  and  more 
astonishing  than  all,  the  actual  use  of  improvised  tools  by  these 
creatures,  and  many  other  points  which  the  Peckhams  have 
brought  out  and  described  make  one  wish  to  drop  all  other  oc- 
cupations and  immediately  begin  the  study  of  the  solitary  wasps. 

The  active  little  wasps  of  the  family  Oxybelidse  are  known 
in  Europe  to  burrow  in  the  sand  and  to  provision  their  nests  with 
flies.  European  writers  state  that  they  do  not  paralyze  the  flies 
by  stinging  as  with  most  other  digger  wasps,  but  that  they  crush 
the  thorax  just  beneath  the  wings  so  as  to  destroy  the  great  nerve 
ganglia  at  that  spot.  The  Peckhams  found  one  of  our  American 
species,  Oxybehis  quadrinotatus,  burrowing  in  the  sand  and 
storing  flies  after  the  burrow  was  completed.  There  were  some- 
times a  dozen  flies  in  the  same  nest  and  all  had  the  thorax 
crushed.  This  little  wasp  carries  its  prey  by  clasping  the  head  of 
the  victim  with  the  third  pair  of  legs,  and  flying  thus,  with  the 
whole  body  of  the  fly  sticking  out  behind  her,  she  presents  a  re- 
markable appearance. 

The  wasps  of  the  family  Crabronidse  are  usually  larger,  but 
still  are  rather  small  insects.  They  burrow  in  sand  and  clay  and 
many  of  them  make  their  burrows  in  wood — in  palings,  posts, 
stumps  and  decaying  logs.  They  store  in  their  cells  a  great 
variety  of  insects.  Xylocrabro  (Crabro)  stirpicola  was  found  by 
the  Peckhams  to  fill  its  cells  with  different  kinds  of  flies.  Others 
store  spiders  and  plant  lice.  The  interesting  observation  was 
made  by  the  Peckhams  on  the  species  just  mentioned  that  it  works 
at  night  and  that  "her  manners  were  an  agreeable  contrast  to 
those  of  the  wasps  that  we  had  been  watching  through  the  day. 
The  feverish  excitement  of  their  ways  seemed  quite  in  keeping 
with  the  burning  heat  of  noon,  while  Crabro's  slow  and  gentle 
movements  harmonized  perfectly  with  the  long  shadows  of 
evening."  One  specimen  was  seen  to  work  industriously  for 
forty-two  hours,  toiling  from  three  in  the  afternoon  on  July  27, 
through  that  night  and  the  day  and  night  following  until  nine 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  29th.  "Surely,"  say  the  Peckhams, 
"she  takes  the  palm  for  industry,  not  only  from  other  wasps  but 
from  the  ant  and  bee  as  well."  Her  burrow  was  thirty-nine  cen- 
timeters in  length  and  was  made  in  the  stalk  of  a  raspberry  or 
19 


\Vasps 

blackberry.  The  species  which  belong  to  the  genus  Trypoxylon 
and  its  close  allies  as  a  rule  make  use  of  the  burrows  of  other  in- 
sects. They  sometimes  store  the  insects  which  they  collect  in 
the  deserted  cells  of  a  mud-dauber,  and  sometimes  in  the  small 
round  holes  made  by  wood-boring  beetles  in  old  trees.  Many 
of  the  species  seem  to  store  up  plant  lice  but  others  capture  and 
paralyze  different  kinds  of  spiders.  There  is  a  very  important 
wasp  which  belongs  to  this  group  which  does  not  occur  in  the 
United  States  but  which  I  am  trying  to  introduce.  This  is  the 
Ampulex  which  preys  upon  cockroaches.  A  correspondent  in 
Mauritius,  D'Emmerez  de  Charmoy,  of  the  museum  at  Port  Louis, 
has  promised  to  send  me  some  of  these  creatures  alive.  He  states 
that  they  enter  the  houses  and  prey  upon  the  domestic  cockroach. 
Perkins,  quoted  by  Sharp,  says  that  in  West  Africa  cockroaches 
are  stung  by  these  wasps  and  placed  in  confinement  in  some  such 
spot  as  a  keyhole  and  in  one  case  one  was  apparently  prevented 
from  afterward  escaping  by  the  wasp  carrying  some  heavy 
nails  into  the  keyhole.  Rothney,  also  quoted  by  Sharp,  says, 
"  I  saw  two  or  three  of  these  wasps  (A  riificornis)  collar  a  pe- 
culiar cockroach  by  the  antennae  and  lead  it  off  into  a  crack  in 
the  bark,  but  as  the  cockroach  reappeared  smiling  each  time  I 
don't  know  what  was  up." 

Numbers  of  other  most  interesting  forms  occur  here,  but 
those  interested  must  go  to  the  Peckhams'  book  and  to  Ashmead's 
interesting  paper  entitled,  "  The  Habits  of  the  Aculeate  Hymen- 
optera,"  published  in  Psyche,  January  to  May,  1894,  and  to  the 
papers  referred  to  by  the  latter  author. 

The  genus  Ammophila  contains  some  of  the  most  interesting 
forms  in  this  family,  and  the  habits  of  one  or  more  species  have 
been  described  in  the  most  interesting  way  by  the  Peckhams,  by 
the  late  William  Hamilton  Gibson,  and  Dr.  S.  W.  Williston,  and 
by  Mr.  Theodore  Pergande.  These  are  the  insects  which  use 
tools.  Their  burrows  are  deep  in  the  earth  and  are  carefully  con- 
cealed by  the  insertion  of  a  stone,  over  which  dry  earth  is  scraped. 
When  the  female  returns  with  a  caterpillar,  (and  she  travels  un- 
erringly to  this  concealed  burrow  for  a  long  distance,)  the  earth 
and  stone  are  removed,  the  caterpillar  is  carried  down  into  the 
burrow  and  the  mouth  is  once  more  concealed  until  another 
caterpillar  is  brought.  The  solicitude  exhibited  by  the  maternal 
wasp  for  fear  her  burrow  may  be  discovered  has  been  vividly 


Wasps 

described  by  all  of  the  authors  above  mentioned.  When  the 
burrow  is  complete  the  female  wasp  has  been  observed  to  use  a 
stone  as  a  tamping  iron  to  pack  the  earth  into  the  mouth  of  the 
burrow.  This  is  the  tool  use  referred  to.  Dr.  Williston  states 
that  he  feared  to  publish  his  observation  at  first,  since  he  might 
not  be  believed.  Pergande  noticed  that  after  the  burrow  was 
completed  and  filled  the  mother  wasp  revisited  the  spot  oc- 
casionally to  satisfy  herself  that  everything  was  secure  against  in- 
truders and  to  make  surety  doubly  sure  by  placing  additional  dis- 
guising objects  over  the  already  disguised  burrow  mouth. 

It  was  in  their  study  of  one  of  the  Ammophilas  that  the 
Peckhams  noticed  a  very  distinct  personality  among  the  females 
which  they  watched  at  work.  This  personality  was  not  of  in- 
dividual appearance  but  of  such  mental  attributes  as  careful 
painstaking  or  carelessness  and  industry  or  laziness.  One  seemed 
to  hurry  tremendously  and  spent  no  time  on  non-essentials. 
Another  was  an  artist,  working  for  a  long  time  on  the  closing  of 
her  burrow,  arranging  the  surface  with  scrupulous  care  and 
sweeping  away  every  particle  of  dust  to  a  distance.  Still  another 
went  to  the  extreme  in  carelessness,  carrying  the  caterpillar  in  a 
very  careless  way  and  making  a  nest  which  was  a  very  poor 
affair.  Still  a  fourth  was  "the  most  fastidious  and  perfect  little 
worker  of  the  whole  season,  so  nice  was  she  in  her  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends,  so  busy  and  contented  in  her  labor  of  love,  and 
so  pretty  in  her  pride  of  her  completed  work."  In  fact,  they  seem 
to  have  almost  as  much  individuality  as  human  beings  and  the 
result  of  these  observations  has  a  strong  bearing  on  the  discussion 
of  instinct.  Fabre,  the  French  entomologist,  who  studied  the 
same  insects,  considered  that  they  were  inspired  by  automatic- 
ally perfect  instincts  which  can  never  have  varied  to  any  ap- 
preciable extent  from  the  beginning  of  time.  Deviation  from  the 
regular  rule,  he  thought,  would  mean  extinction.  The  Milwaukee 
authorities,  however,  found  that  variability  was  the  one  unmis- 
takable and  ever  present  fact,  and  this  variability  existed  in  every 
particular,  in  the  shape  of  the  nest  and  in  the  manner  of  dig- 
ging it,  whether  it  is  left  closed  or  open,  in  the  manner  of 
stinging  the  prey  and  of  crushing  it,  in  the  manner  of  carrying 
the  victim,  in  the  way  of  closing  the  nest  and  in  the  condition 
produced  in  the  victim  by  the  stinging,  some  dying  and  others 
living  for  a  long  time,  though  nearly  motionless.     All  this  varia- 


Wasps 

bility  the  Peckhams  got  from  the  study  of  nine  wasps  and  fifteen 
caterpillars! 

The  mud-daubers  of  the  genus  Sceliphron  (formerly  and  in 
most  books  placed  in  the  genus  Pelopseus)  are  among  the  most 
interesting  members  of  this  super-family.  They  build  their  nests 
of  plain  mud  in  sheltered  places  under  the  eaves  of  barns  or  ever? 
in  the  attics  of  houses.  The  food  supply  with  which  the  cells 
are  stored  consists  almost  invariably  of  spiders,  as  many  spiders 
being  packed  into  one  cell  as  the  cell  will  hold.  A  single  egg  is 
laid  upon  the  last  spider  packed  in  and  the  larva  eats  rapidly,  con- 
suming the  abdomen  of  the  spiders  first  and  subsequently  the 
rest  of  their  bodies,  eating  both  dead  and  living  spiders.  After 
the  egg  is  laid  and  the  nest  closed  up  new  cells  are  constructed 
by  the  same  female. 

A  curious  observation  has  been  made  by  Schwarz  in  the 
Washington  parks  and  gardens.  He  found  that  one  of  the 
Sphegid  wasps — Chalvlnon  ccenileum — was  engaged  in  captur- 
ing a  certain  kind  of  spider  which  hid  itself  so  carefully  that  it 
was  most  difficult  to  find.  Instead  of  spending  her  time  in  fruit- 
less searching  the  wasp  would  entangle  herself  in  the  web  of  the 
spider  when  the  latter  would  immediately  dart  out  from  her 
hiding  place,  thus  exposing  herself  to  the  wasp  who  would 
easily  free  herself  from  the  web  and  chase  the  spider  to  its  retreat. 


Life  History  of  a  Digger  Wasp 

( Splicciiis  spcciosits  Say.^ 

This  large  and  ferocious  wasp,  which  is  in  fact  the  largest 
wasp  in  what  may  be  termed  the  eastern  central  states,  that  is 
to  say,  from  southern  New  Jersey  southward,  is  very  abundant 
in  Maryland,  and  Virginia  and  the  mid-western  states  in  the 
month  of  July,  digging  great  burrows,  usually  in  clayey  soils,  and 
storing  in  them  for  food  the  large  dog-day  Cicada,  harvest-fly  or 
lyre-man,  or  annual  Cicada  (Tibiceii  pniinosa  Say).  During  the 
latter  half  of  July,  when  the  note  of  the  Cicada  is  filling  the  air  with 
its  vibrations,  this  big  wasp  is  often  seen  flying  about  the  trees  from 
which  the  song  comes.  Suddenly  the  regular  note  of  the  har- 
vest-fly ceases  and  in  its  stead  a  distressing,  discordant  cry  will 


Wasps 


be  emitted.     The  wasp  has  caught  its  victim  and  with  a  quick 
sting  has  paralyzed  it  and  thrown  it  into  a  comatose  condition 

from  which  it  never  recovers. 
In  this  preliminary  struggle 
often  both  the  wasp  and  its 
victim  foil  to  the  ground  and 
then  the  wasp  begins  the  la- 
borious task  of  dragging  its 
prey  back  up  the  tree  strad- 
dling it  with  its  long  legs, 
although  the  Cicada  is  bigger 
than  the  wasp,  and  working 
sometimes  for  an  hour  or  more 
until  it  reaches  a  height  from 

Fig.  7.— Sphecius  speciosus  Say  carrying    which     it     Can     fly     obliquely 

a  Cicada  to  her  burrow.  down  to  its  nest  at  some  dis- 


( From  Insect  Life.) 


tance  away.    In  Washington, 


the  dryer  and  more  elevated  portions  of  the  lawns,  especially 
slight  terraces  along  the  sides  of  roadways,  are  preferred  by  this 
wasp  for  its  burrows.  Damp  earth 
causes  the  Cicadas  to  mould  after 
they  have  been  stored  in  the  burrow. 
The  burrow  itself  consists  of  a 
gently  sloping  entrance  extending 
for  about  six  inches,  when  ordina- 
rily a  turn  is  made  at  right  angles 
and  the  excavation  is  continued  for 
six  or  eight  inches  farther,  ending 
in  a  globular  cell  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter.  Frequently  a  number 
of  branches  leave  the  main  burrow 
at  about  the  same  point,  each  ter- 
minating in  a  round  cell.  Each  of 
these  cells  contains,  along  in  Au- 
gust, one  or  two  Cicadas,  and  in 
those  cells  which  contain  two  the 
larva  of  the  wasp  acquires  a  larger 
size,  and,  as  the  female  wasp  is  a 
great  deal  larger  than  the  male,  Riley  thought  that  one  Cicada  is 
required  as  food  to  develop  a  male  and  two  to  develop  a  female. 
23 


Fig.  S. — Adult  Cicada  bearing  egg 

of  tile  digger  wasp,  at  a. 

(From  Insect  Life.) 


Wasps 


rig.  9. — Cicada  in  burrow  of  Sphecius,  witli  full- 
grown  lar\'a  of  digger  wasp  feeding. 
(From  huect  Life.) 


The  delicate,  white,  elon- 
gate egg  of  the  wasp  is 
laid  under  the  middle  leg 
of  the  Cicada  and  when 
it  hatches  the  larva  stici<s 
out  its  head  and  begins 
at  once  to  draw  nourish- 
ment from  between  the 
segments  of  its  victim. 
The  egg  hatches  in  two 
or  three   days  and    the 


larva  attains  full  growth  in  a  week,  or  a  little  more.  It  feeds 
entirely  from  the  outside 
and  when  full  grown  spins 
a  white  silken  cocoon  which 
is  finished  at  the  expiration 
of  two  days.  The  word 
silken  is  somewhat  mis- 
leading, since  it  is  mixed 
with  much  earth.  When  it 
is  finished,  about  a  dozen 
curious,  porelike  openings 

are    seen    in   the  side  of  the     Fig   10 — larvaof  digger  wasp  spinning  its 
cocoon,      the     function      of  cocoon.     ( From  insect  Life.) 


Fig.  II. — Sphecius  speciosus:  a,  larva;  b,  pupa  from  below; 

c,  same,  from  side — natural  size;    d,  head  of  larva; 

e,  labium  of  same ;  f,  ma.xilla  of  same — 

enlarged.     (From  Insect  Life.) 

=4 


Plate  V. 
WASPS 


Poecilopompilus  interruptus 
Monobia  quadridens 
Hemipogonius  alienatus 
Odynerus  capra 
Odynerus  campestris 
Hemipogonius  fortis 
Ancistrocerus  capra 
Eumenes  fraternus 
Vespa  borealis 
Ceratopales  bipunctatus 
Polistes  metricus 


12.  Polistes  annularis     - 

13.  Vespa  vulgaris 

14.  Sceliphron  cementarius 

15.  Ammophila  gryphus 

16.  Ammophila  interrupta 

17.  Vespa  Carolina 

18.  Sphex  ichneumoneus 

19.  Pompilogaster  aethiops 

20.  Priononyx  atrata 

21.  Sphecius  speciosus 

22.  Chlorion  coeruleum 


The  Insect  Bock 


Wasps 


which  can  only  be  surmised.  Possibly 
they  are  for  the  respiration  of  the  larva 
before  it  transforms  to  pupa  and  it  re- 
mains in  the  cocoon  unchanged  through 
the  winter,  transforming  to  pupa  only 
the  following  spring  and  shortly  before 
the  appearance  of  the  true  insect.  When 
the  adult  hatches  it  gnaws  its  way  out  of 
the  cocoon  and  so  on  up  through  the 
burrow  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  thus 
accomplishing  its  life-round  in  a  full  year. 
This  big  digger  wasp  is  very  abundant 
Fig.  12.^0,  cocoon  of  Sphe-  in  mid-summer  throughout  the  southern 
cius-naturai  size;  i,  en-     g^^^gg      j^  ^^        severely,  and,  it  is  per- 

larged  section  of  pore.  ^  j '  <  r 

(Front  imect  Life.)        haps  needless  to  say,  should  be  avoided. 


The  Social  Wasps  and  their  Allies. 

(Super-family  Vespoidea.) 

All  of  the  social  wasps  belong  to  this  super-family,  and  there 
are  also  brought  into  it  a  number  of  solitary  wasps,  as  well  as 
the  so-called  cuckoo  flies  of  the  old  family  Chrysididae,  and  some 
strange  insects  that  were  formerly 
placed  in  the  parasitic  family  Proc- 
totrypidae,  but  which  are  now 
made  a  family  by  themselves  under 
the  name  Bethylidae.  There  are 
other  parasitic  groups  in  this  super- 
family,  and  it  also  contains  the 
curious  creatures  known  as  cow-kil- 
lers, cow-ants,  solitary  ants,  or  velvet 
ants  of  the  family  Mutillidas,  which 
have  solitary  habits,  but  closely  re- 
semble the  true  ants.  All  these  forms,  differing  however  widely 
in  habit,  feed  for  the  most  part  in  their  early  stages  upon  other 
insects  or  upon  the  remains  of  other  insects.  The  only  exception 
is  a  small  group  found  mainly  in  tropical  regions,  which  may  be 
termed  the  honey  wasps,  of  which  the  old  Polistes  mellifica  of 
Say,  which  comes  from  Mexico,  is  an  example.  All  of  these 
25 


Fig.  13.     Polistes  pallipes. 
(After  Comstock.) 


Wasps 


honey  wasps  are  now  brought  together  into  one  genus,  which  is 
called  Nectarinia. 

The  true  social  wasps,  nearly  all  of  which  in  the  United 
States  belong  to  the  Genera  l/'espa  and  Polistes,  form  communi- 
ties much  like  those  of  the  social  bees.  Their  communities, 
however,  are  not  so  perfect  and  are  not  so  persistent  as  are 
those  of  the  true  honey  bee  or  of  the  ants,  but  resemble  more 
nearly  those  of  the  bumblebee.  There  is  a  form  known  as  the 
worker,  just  as  with  the  social  bees,  and  the  workers  here,  as  in 
the  other  cases,  are  undeveloped  females.  Here  also,  as  with 
the  social  bees,  these  undeveloped  females  or  workers  may  lay 
eggs  which  invariably  produce  males  or  drones. 

Most  of  our  social  wasps  make  paper  combs  and  nests. 
They  are  in  fact  the  original  paper-makers,  and  it  is  quite  within 
the  possibilities  that  the  paper-making  idea  in  the  human  species 

was  gained  from 
the  observation  of 
these  insects.  Their 
paper,  however, 
is  made  from  wood 
pulp — a  late  de- 
velopment in  the 
human  scale  of  in- 
genuity. They  are 
particularly  fond  of 
scraping  the  frayed 
wood  fibre  from  old  weather-beaten  fence  boards  and  from  the 
sides  of  old  unpainted  buildings.  These  wood  fibres  are  macer- 
ated with  their  saliva,  and  a  pasty  wood  pulp  is  thus  formed  with 
which  the  nests  are  constructed. 

In  our  consideration  of  the  preceding  group  of  wasps,  we  said 
something  about  individuality  among  these  creatures  and  its  in- 
fluence upon  theories  of  instinct.  In  the  social  wasp  also  at  least 
one  observation  seems  to  show  that  individuals  in  the  face  of  an 
emergency  previously  unknown  to  the  species  readily  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions.  This  observation  was  made  by 
Miss  Mary  E.  Murtfeldt,  of  Kirkwood,  Mo.,  who  found  that  in  a 
vineyard  where  the  grape  clusters  were  inclosed  in  paper  bags  to 
prevent  destruction  by  insects  the  social  wasps  found  that  the 
damp  and  rotting  paper  bags  were  perfectly  adapted  to  their  nest- 
26 


Fig.  14.- 


-Spring  nest  of  Polistes  rubiginosus. 
(After  Riley.) 


Wasps 

building  operations,  and  they  thus  used  this  paper  already  pre- 
pared rather  than  to  take  the  trouble  of  manufacturing  their  own 
wood-pulp  paper.  This  was  a  good  thing  for  the  wasps,  but 
unfortunate  for  the  vineyardist. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  study  the  economy  of  the  social 
wasps  than  that  of  either  the  hive  bee  or  ants.  As  most  of  the 
species  are  very  irritable  and  possessed  of  venomous  stings,  it  re- 
quires considerable  tact  and  courage  to  investigate  their  habits 
closely. 

The  size  of  the  communities  varies  at  the  season  when  they 
are  largest,  and  according  to  the  species,  from  a  few  individuals 
to  many  hundreds.  In  one  large  nest  I  counted  1,135  cells,  and 
since,  as  will  be  shown,  the  worker  cells  are  used  two  or  three 
times  in  the  summer,  the  colonies  become  very  strong.  This 
count  was  made  with  the  large  bald-faced  hornet  f^espa  macu- 
lata)  but  in  some  of  the  smaller  wasps  or  yellow-jackets,  like 
yespagerinanica,  the  cells  are  even  more  numerous.  In  one  nest 
of  the  latter  species,  Mr.  Marlatt  tells  me  that  he  carefully  esti- 
mated that  it  contained  about  fourteen  thousand  cells. 

These  communities  of  the  social  wasps,  unlike  those  of  the 
hive  bee  and  of  ants,  but  like  those  of  the  bumblebees,  have  only 
a  temporary  existence.  On  the  approach  of  winter  the  males 
and  workers  perish  and  the  fertile  females  crawl  into  such  pro- 
tected situations  as  crevices  in  wails  or  under  the  bark  of  trees 
and  there  pass  the  winter  in  a  dormant  state.  At  the  opening  of 
spring  each  surviving  female  founds  a  new  colony.  At  first  she 
performs  the  duties  of  both  queen  and  worker;  a  small  nest  is 
made,  eggs  are  laid  in  it,  and  when  the  larvae  hatch  they  are  fed 
and  cared  for  by  the  queen  until  they  reach  maturity.  This  first 
generation  is  composed  entirely  of  workers.  They  relieve  the 
queen  of  the  duties  which  belong  to  them  and  from  this  time  forth 
her  only  duty  is  to  lay  eggs.  Sometimes  she  assists  in  the  care 
of  the  young  but  not  in  the  construction  of  the  nests. 

The  essential  part  of  a  wasp's  nest  consists  of  a  comb  formed 
of  hexagonal  cells  similar  in  form  to  the  cells  of  a  honey-comb. 
It  differs,  however,  in  several  important  respects  from  that  of  the 
hive  bee:  The  material  of  which  it  is  made  is  paper  instead  of 
wax;  the  comb  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells  instead  of  two, 
and  the  cells  are  usually  vertical  instead  of  horizontal.  In  some 
species  the  nest  consistsof  a  single  comb  with  one  or  more  stems 
27 


Wasps 

holding  it  in  place,  in  others  the  comb  is  enclosed  in  a  spherical 
envelope  of  paper  with  a  small  opening  at  the  bottom.  In  the 
more  complicated  nests  there  is  a  series  of  combs  placed  one  be- 
low the  other,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  case  made  of  many 
thicknesses  of  paper.  The  nests  are  enlarged  by  adding  cells  to 
the  edges  of  the  combs,  and  room  is  made  for  these  new  cells  by 
rem)ving  the  inner  layers  of  the  envelope;  the  portion  removed, 
however,  not  being  wasted,  but  chewed  up  again  by  the  wasps 
and  added  to  the  outside.  The  nests  are  suspended  from 
branches  of  shrubs  and  trees  or  from  fences  and  roofs.  Some  of 
the  smaller  species  build  their  nests  in  the  ground  and  under 
stumps.  In  each  cell  of  the  comb  an  egg  is  laid.  Owing  to 
the  position  of  the  comb,  when  the  larva  hatches  it  is  suspended 
head  downwards  in  each  cell  and  holds  its  place  while  young  by 
means  of  a  glue  and  when  old  by  its  enlarged  head  end,  which 
completely  fills  the  open  part  of  the  cell.  They  are  constantly 
nursed  by  the  females  and  workers,  and  are  fed  with  a  brownish 
fluid  which  is  prepared  by  the  workers  or  females  and  consists 
of  the  juices  of  fruits  and  the  remains  of  other  insects  which  have 
been  chewed  up.  When  it  gets  full  grown  the  larva  spins  a 
silken  cocoon,  the  lower  end  of  which  serves  as  a  cap  to  the 
cell,  and  then  it  transforms  to  a  pupa.  After  the  adult  wasp  is- 
sues the  cell  is  cleaned  out  by  the  workers,  and  is  used  again  by 
the  queen,  and,  as  the  whole  period  from  the  laying  of  the  egg 
to  the  emerging  of  the  full-grown  wasp  is  about  a  month  in  the 
northern  states,  a  comb  made  early  in  the  season  serves  for 
several  successive  generations. 

As  a  rule  the  males  and  queens  are  not  developed  until 
toward  autumn.  At  this  time  larger  cells  are  made  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  eggs  which  are  to  produce  these  forms.  Thus  if  a 
large  wasp  nest  be  examined  it  will  be  seen  that  the  top  combs 
contain  smaller  cells  and  all  of  the  same  size,  while  the  lower 
combs  contain  larger  cells.  This  habit  which  the  social  wasps 
have  of  beginning  at  the  top  and  building  downward  was  what 
suggested  to  Gulliver's  Laputan  philosopher  that  they  should  be- 
gin by  building  the  garrets  of  every  house  first  of  all  and  then 
gradually  working  down  to  the  lower  stories  and  the  cellars. 

The  most  notable  of  the  social  wasps  in  the  United  States  is 
the  bald-faced  hornet  (l/espa  maculala)  above  referred  to.  It 
builds  the  enormous  paper  nests  commonly  seen  attached  to  the 
28 


Wasps 

branches  of  the  trees.  The  great  yespa  crabro  or  hornet  of  Eng- 
land and  Europe,  which  is  the  species  most  commonly  referred 
to  in  English  books  of  reference,  was  accidentally  imported  into 
this  country  many  years  ago  and  established  itself  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  York  City.  1  believe  it  was  first  discovered  there  by  Mr. 
James  Angus.  It  has  since  spread  and  multiplied  very  slowly,  and 
is  not  known  to  occur  very  far  from  the  place  where  it  was  origi- 
nally discovered.  It  is  rarely  found  in  parts  of  Long  Island  and 
New  Jersey.  There  is  also  an  unconfirmed  report  of  its  establish- 
ment near  Charleston,  S.  C.  This  wasp,  which  is  more  yellow 
in  color,  builds  preferably  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees. 

The  smaller  yt\\ovj-]a.cV.t\.s(  Vespa germanica  and  y.  cuneata) 
build  their  nests  above  ground,  in  or  beneath  stumps  or  stones, 
and  in  excavations  in  the  open  ground.  The  underground  nests 
are  frequently  very  large,  sometimes  more  than  the  size  of  a  half- 
bushel  basket.  Access  to  these  nests  is  gained  by  a  single  (rarely 
two)  small  opening  which  leads  directly  from  the  center  of  the 
nests.  The  loose  paper  covering  is  not  as  tough  and  thick  as 
that  with  the  big  hornet. 

These  large  underground  nests  may  be  exterminated,  when 
their  location  is  discovered,  by  pouring  in  a  little  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  The  time  of  the  application,  however,  should  be  chosen, 
and  it  should  be  after  dusk;  otherwise  there  is  great  danger  of 
being  stung.  The  colonies  in  the  large  hornets'  nests  are  rather 
easily  destroyed  about  nightfall  by  drenching  them  with  a  bucket 
of  kerosene.  This  should  be  done  late  rather  than  early,  because 
just  at  dusk  a  few  late-returning  workers  will  "raise  Cain"  over 
the  destruction  of  their  home. 

The  other  common  social  wasps  found  in  this  country  belong 
to  the  genus  Polistes.  They  are  the  long-bodied,  black  wasps 
with  folded  wings  and  slender  abdomens.  They  are  frequently 
found  in  houses  in  the  autumn  looking  for  places  to  pass  the  winter. 

The  nest  of  the  Polistes  wasps  consists  of  a  single  comb 
without  any  envelope.  They  are  found  commonly  in  country 
barns,  and  are  also  attached  to  bushes  and  to  the  lower  surfaces 
of  stones  which  are  slightly  raised  from  the  ground.  They  are 
generally  horizontal  in  this  country,  but  European  species  build 
their  combs  vertically.  Polistes  feeds  upon  caterpillars  and  also 
vegetable  material  as  well,  and  its  habits  in  other  respects  are 
very  much  like  those  of  the  other  social  wasps. 
29 


Wasps 

Mr.  F.  H.  Chittenden  tells  me  that  he  thinks  one  of  these 
Polistes  wasps  was  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  the  cabbage 
caterpillars  in  the  center  of  a  large  cabbage  field  neai-  Washington 
last  summer.  The  wasps  would  hover  about  a  plant  and  then 
alight  and  walk  about  it,  but  finding  nothing  would  continue  to 
the  next  plant,  and  so  on  to  the  next.  In  the  sunny  center  part 
of  the  field  the  cabbage  caterpillars  were  exterminated,  but  in  the 
shady  portions  next  a  patch  of  woods  they  were  present  in  great 
numbers.  Wasps  do  not  see  well.  They  find  their  prey  more 
by  a  sense  of  touch  than  by  a  sense  of  sight,  and  as  they  prefer 
the  sunshine  they  unconsciously  ignored  the  abundant  caterpillars 
in  the  shade. 

There  are  tropical  social  wasps,  most  of  them  belonging  to 
the  genus  Polybia,  which  build  enormous  nests.  It  is  said  that 
the  nest  of  a  Ceylonese  wasp  reaches  a  length  of  six  feet,  and 
with  a  common  South  American  form  the  paper  is  so  thick  and 
hard  that  it  resembles  thick  pasteboard,  while  the  outer  layer  is 
so  fine  in  texture  that  one  can  readily  write  upon  it  with  ink  and 
a  fine  pen. 

The  solitary  wasps  of  this  super-family,  although  differing  in 
structure,  resemble  greatly  in  habits  the  solitary  wasps  of  the 
super-family  Sphegoidea.  There  is  one  large  family  known  as 
Pompilidae,  of  which  we  have  many  representatives  in  this  coun- 
try. All  of  these  wasps  whose  habits  are  known  prey  upon 
spiders.  More  than  a  hundred  species  occur  in  the  United  States, 
and  most  of  them  dig  burrows  in  the  ground,  some  of  them, 
however,  using  readily  natural  burrows  and  those  of  other 
insects.  Some  of  them  dig  their  burrows  before  they  catch  their 
spiders,  and  others  catch  the  spiders  first;  and  one  species  has 
been  seen  to  carefully  hang  its  spider  on  the  branch  of  a  plant 
where  it  would  not  be  disturbed  by  ants  while  the  burrow  was 
being  made,  occasionally  visiting  it  in  the  intervals  of  work  to 
find  out  whether  it  was  safe.  The  habits  of  several  Pompilids 
have  been  studied  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Peckham.  There  is  a  famous 
wasp  of  this  family  which  in  the  Southwest  is  known  as  the 
tarantula-killer. 

The  wasps  oi  the  family  Eumenidse  are  known  as  potter- 
wasps,  and  store  up  caterpillars,  saw-fly  larvae,  and  the  larvae 
of  beetles.  They  form  globular  cells  of  clay  or  sand  which  are 
attached  by  a  small  pedestal  to  some  twig.  They  are  filled  full 
3° 


Plate  VI. 
WASPS 


Notogonius  nigripennis 
Rhinopsis  canaliculatus 
Priocnemis  nuperus 
Agenia  mellipes 
Lyrodon  subita 
Trypoxylon  albitarse 
Trypoxylon  albopilosum 
Trypoxylon  texensis 
Trypoxylon  politum 
Solenius  interruptus 
Pompilus  ferrugineus 
Odynerus  conform  is 
Odynerus  megaera 
Odynerus  dorsalis 
Odynerus  tigris 
Masaris  occidentalis 
Ancistrocerus  uniiasciatus 


FIG. 

i8.  Vespa  sulcata 

19.  Odynerus  fulvipes 

20.  Odynerus  austrinus 

21.  Masaris  texensis 

22.  Masaris  texensis 

23.  Vespa  diabolica 

24.  Vespa  germanica 

25.  Vespa  cuneata 

26.  Odynerus  annulatus 

27.  Vespa  maculata 

28.  Polistes  pallipes 

29.  Polistes  exilis 
50.  Vespa  vidua 

31.  Polybia  cubensis 

32.  Polistes  rubiginosus 

33.  Polistes  bellicosus 

34.  Polistes  americanus 


Wasps 


1 5. — Odynerus  flavipes  and  its  nest  in  a 
spool.     (After  Riley.) 


of  caterpillars  in  just  the  same  way  that  the  mud-daubers  fill  their 
cells  with  spiders,  and  a  single  egg  is  placed  in  each  cell.  Prof. 
O.  T.  Mason  says  that  cer- 
tain beautifully  shaped  In- 
dian vessels  and  baskets 
have  precisely  the  form  of 
these  cells,  and  he  thinks 
the  observant  aborigines 
may  have  deliberately  cop- 
ied the  insect  design. 

There  is  an  interesting 
genus  in  this  group  known 
as    Odynerus.     These    are 
small  active   wasps,  usually  with  one   or   more   yellow  bands. 
They  were    probably  originally  borers,   but  are  most   adaptive 

in  their  selection  of  places  in 
which  to  make  their  cells. 
They  use  the  old  burrows  of 
different  bees  and  wasps,  and 
are  fond  of  using  old  mud- 
daubers' cells.  Ashmead  found 
one  species  in  Florida  making 

Fie.  16. — Tiphia  inomata.    ( After  Riley.)     .^         ii-...ui      1       ru-r        ... 

^  ^  '   ^  ^    Its  cells  m  the  lock  of  his  front 

door,  and  in  old  holes  in  a  board  fence  and  in  old  oak  galls. 
Walsh  found  one  building  its  cell  in  the  cavity  of  a  discarded 
spool.  These  wasps  also  sting  caterpillars 
and  store  them  in  their  cells. 

The  insects  of  several  of  the  families, 
although  resembling  in  general  appearance 
the  other  wasps,  are  probably  parasitic  in 
their  habits.  These  are  the  Sapygidse,  the 
Scoliidse,  the  Myzinidse,  the  Tiphiidae,  all 
well  represented  in  this  country,  and  the 
curious  Thynnidas  of  Australia,  South  America  and  Africa.  By 
parasitic  we  mean  that  their  larvae  feed  upon  or  within  the  living 
insects  instead  of  such  as  have  been  paralyzed  by  the  sting  of  the 
parent,  or  which  are  already  dead.  The  Tiphia  wasps  are  para- 
sitic upon  the  big  white  underground  grubs  which  are  the  larvae 
of  the  May  beetles  or  June  beetles,  and  the  larva  of  Scolia  has 
been  found  in  Europe  within  the  body  of  another  beetle,  and 


Fig.  x-j. — Chrysis  sp. 
(After  Packard.) 


Wasps 

Ashmead  has  found  an  American  Scolia  preying  upon  the  larva 
of  still  a  third  beetle. 

The  so-called  solitary  ants,  of  the  family  Mutillidae,  are  very 
common  in  portions  of  the  United  States.  Most  of  them  are 
clothed  with  hair,  which  is  frequently  bright-colored — in  some 
of  them  being  bright  red — and  on  account  of  the  velvety  appear- 
ance which  this  hair  gives  them  they  are  sometimes  called  velvet 
ants,  in  this  group  there  is  admirable  opportunity  for  the  study 
of  life  histciries,  since  comparatively  little  is  known  about  the 
way  these  insects  live.  They  are  no  doubt  parasitic  in  the  nests 
of  bees,  and  in  Europe  one  species  is  known  to  live  in  the  larval 
state  feeding  upon  the  larvae  of  a  bumblebee.  Schwarz,  in  this 
country,  reared  one  of  them  from  the  cells  of  a  burrowing  bee, 
Riley  another  from  the  cells  of  another  burrowing  bee,  and 
Davidson  from  an  anthophorid  bee. 

Many  strikingly  beautiful  insects  belong  to  the  family  Chrys- 
ididse.  They  are  called  cuckoo  flies  by  the  English  writers,  and 
goldwespen,  or  gold  wasps,  by  the  Germans.  The  colors  are 
usually  brilliant  metallic  green  or  blue,  and  the  abdomen  is  fre- 
quently tipped  with  red.  The  larger  species  reach  the  length  of 
half  an  inch  or  more,  but  the  commoner  forms  in  the  United 
States  are  small  insects,  seldom  reaching  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  length.  They  are  rather  stout-bodied  insects,  and  are  readily 
distinguished  from  the  slender  wasps  of  the  preceding  groups. 

Careful  studies  of  the  economy  of  any  of  our  North  American 
species  are  greatly  needed.  Walsh  reared  Chrysis  cwriilans  from 
the  cells  of  one  of  the  potter  wasps  (Euinenes  fraterna),  and  Ash- 
mead has  seen  one  of  them  entering  the  burrows  of  a  Trypoxylon, 
while  he  reared  two  species  from  the  cells  of  a  mud-dauber  and 
one  from  the  cells  of  an  Odynerus.  They  are,  therefore,  either 
parasites  or  guests  in  the  nests  of  wild  bees  and  wasps,  and  are 
probably  parasites  rather  than  inquilines.  In  Europe  some  species 
of  the  genus  Cleptes  are  true  parasites  on  saw-fly  larvae.  There 
is  a  curious  confusion  sometimes  in  an  Odynerus  cell,  for  a  Try- 
poxylon will  enter  one  carrying  its  own  store  of  food  with  it,  and 
closing  the  entrance  against  the  return  of  the  female  Odynerus; 
then  comes  along  a  Chrysis  and  lays  an  egg,  from  which  hatches 
a  larva  which  devours  the  stores  of  the  Trypoxylon.  The  larva 
of  the  cuckoo  fly  is  said  to  transform  without  cocoon*t6  a  pupa, 
and  in  this  state  to  pass  the  winter. 
32 


Wasps 

The  parasitic  family  Bethylidse,  which  Ashmead  has  trans- 
ferred from  the  Proctotrypoidea  to  the  Vespoidea,  is  a  group  of 
small  insects.  The  family  Trigonalidae,  now  placed  here,  but 
formerly  placed  near  the  Ichneumon  flies,  is  also  parasitic  ;  they 
live  parasitically  in  the  nests  of  Polistes  and  Vespa,  agreeing  in 
habits  with  the  Sapygidse. 

The  Bethylids  are  all,  so  far  as  we  at  present  know,  parasitic 
upon  caterpillars  and  upon  beetle  larvae,  usually  upon  very  small 
larvs.  Haliday,  the  Irish  entomologist,  many  years  ago,  wrote 
an  interesting  account  of  the  parasitism  of  some  little  Tineid  larv^^ 
by  a  species  of  Bethylus;  but  in  this  case  the  parasite  was  observed 
to  drag  its  little  caterpillar  victim  into  a  hole  in  a  reed.  Possibly 
this  fact  had  much  to  do  with  the  original  suggestion,  which  came 
from  Haliday,  that  the  Bethylidae  should  be  placed  nearer  the 
wasps  than  with  the  true  parasitic  Hymenoptera.  In  the  typical 
life  history  which  follows,  however,  we  will  see  that  members  of 
this  family  are  true  parasites. 


Typical  Life  History 

As  has  just  been  shown,  the  habits  of  the  insects  of  this  great 
group  are  so  diverse  that  no  one  life  history  could  be  considered 
as  in  any  way  typical  of  the  whole  group.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  proper  and  complete  study  of  no  one  American  species  has  as 
yet  been  made.  Many  of  these  insects  are  everywhere  to  be 
found,  and  life  histories  of  surpassing  interest  and  of  much  novelty 
await  the  first  careful  person  who  will  care  to  devote  the  necessary 
time  to  this  study.  Of  course  a  great  deal  is  known  about  the 
general  economy  of  our  social  wasps  and  interesting  studies  have 
been  made  by  the  Peckhams  and  others  on  some  of  the  solitary 
wasps  which  belong  to  this  super-family,  as  well  as  to  the  Sphe- 
coidea;  but  it  is  the  parasitic  forms,  especially  of  the  Scoliidae, 
Myzinidae  and  Tiphiidae,  which  offer  great  opportunities.  So  do 
especially  the  Mutillidae  and  the  Chrysididae.  Of  one  of  the  Bethy- 
lidae,  I  am  fortunately  able  to  give  some  account,  since  it  has  been 
studied  with  care  in  my  laboratory  by  Mr.  August  Busck,  from 
whose  unpublished  notes  the  following  interesting  story  is  drawn. 
33 


Wasps 

Life  History  of  a  Parasitic  Wasp 

(Lceliits  irogodcrmatis  Ashm.^ 

When  Mr.  Busck  was  making  some  studies  for  me  in  the 
summer  of  1897,  on  the  life  history  of  the  tussock  moth,  he  made 
the  interesting  discovery  that  the  egg  masses  of  this  famous  shade- 
tree  defoliator  were  sometimes  eaten  by  the  larvse  of  certain  der- 
mestid  beetles  which  are  ordinarily  known  as  museum  pests, 
feeding  upon  skins  and  furs,  stuffed  birds  and  pinned  insects,  and 
which,  although  known  to  feed  upon  dead  and  dry  animal  matter, 
were  hardly  to  be  suspected  of  eating  living  animal  matter.  But 
we  found  (and  this  is  by  the  way)  that  these  museum  pests  were 
really  destroying  the  sound  eggs  of  the  tussock  moth.  This  in- 
terested us  so  much  that  egg  masses  with  dermestid  larvae  were 
brought  into  the  insectary  for  most  careful  observation.  Then  it 
was  found  that  with  the  dermestids  had  also  been  brought  in  a 
most  interesting  parasite  which  proved  to  be  Lcelius  trogoderma- 
tis — a  Bethylid.  The  Lselius  is  a  little,  black,  slender,  active,  four- 
winged  fly;  and  the  female,  when  it  finds  one  of  these  dermestid 
larva,  at  once  jumps  upon  its  back  and  clings  firmly,  in  spite  of 
the  struggles  of  the  victim.  As  soon  as  the  poor  beetle  larva  quiets 
down  a  bit,  Lselius  places  herself  crosswise  over  the  thorax  and, 
curling  her  abdomen  around  under  the  side,  inserts  her  sting  just 
behind  the  second  or  third  pair  of  legs,  paralyzing  the  dermestid 
instantly,  the  sting  apparently  having  entered  one  of  the  large 
thoracic  nerve  ganglia.  Then  the  parasite  relaxes  its  hold  and 
begins  pulling  the  legs  and  hairs  of  its  victim  with  its  mandibles, 
its  antennae  vibrating  in  a  contented  manner.  The  pulling  of  the 
legs  is  evidently  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  parasite  to  see  if 
the  stinging  has  done  its  work  with  perfect  effect.  Having  satis- 
fied herself  by  all  sorts  of  tests  that  the  paralysis  is  complete,  she 
proceeds  to  lay  an  egg,  attaching  it  to  the  skin  of  the  dermestid 
on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  first  pulling  out  the  hairs  carefully 
so  that  the  egg  can  be  firmly  attached  to  the  skin.  If  in  the  course 
of  this  operation,  or  even  before  the  egg  is  laid,  another  dermes- 
tid larva  comes  within  her  range  of  perception,  she  leaves  the 
first  victim,  mounts  and  stings  the  second,  or  even  a  third  or  a 
fourth,  each  time  testing  the  completeness  of  the  paralysis  with 
the  utmost  care.  Before  attaching  the  egg  she  thrusts  her  sting 
into  the  spot  several  times,  apparently  making  an  orifice  through 
34 


Wasps 


which  the  larva,  after  hatching,  can  thrust  its  head,  or  which  it 
can  at  least  enlarge  easily  so  as  to  insert  its  head.  The  egg  is 
oval,  soft,  translucent,  about  a  third  of  a  millimeter  long,  apparently 
has  no  peduncle,  and  is  not  very  firmly  attached  to  the  skin  of  the 
dermestid.  From  one  to  six  eggs  are  laid  upon  a  single  victim. 
In  a  few  days  the  larvas  hatch,  yellow  in  color  and  very  indistinctly 
jointed.  Immediately  on  hatching,  their  mouths  are  closely  ap- 
plied to  the  skin  of 
the  paralyzed  der- 
mestid and  they  be- 
gin to  grow,  not  so 
rapidly  as  the  some- 
what similar  Eu- 
plectrus,  which  will 
be  described  in  a 
succeedingchapter, 
but  still  rather  rap- 
idly, reaching  full 
growth  in  from  ten 
to  fourteen  days. 
When  full  grown, 
a  group  of  these 
larvae  with  their 
heads  inserted  at 
a  central  point,  look  not  unlike  the  petals  of  a  curious 
flower  growing  out  of  the  shriveled  dermestid  larva.  When 
only  one  Laslius  larva  occurs  upon  a  host  it  sometimes  enters  the 
sucked-dry  skin  and  spins  its  cocoon  within  it,  but  generally  the 
white,  rather  loose,  silken  cocoons  are  spun  outside  the  skin  of  the 
dermestid,  which  shows  large  holes  where  the  parasitic  larvae  have 
been  at  work.  After  the  cocoon  is  formed  the  larva  remains  within 
it,  motionless,  for  ten  days  or  more,  finally  transforming  to  a  white 
pupa  with  red  eyes.  This  white  color  changes  gradually  to  black 
and  in  eight  to  ten  days  further  the  adult  fly  issues  from  the  end 
of  the  cocoon  through  a  ragged  hole.  The  entire  life  duration  of 
a  generation,  in  the  summer-time,  is  from  thirty  to  thirty-five 
days  and  the  insect  passes  the  winter  as  a  larva  in  its  cocoon,  the 
cocoons  of  the  winter  generation  being  firmer  than  those  of  the 
summer  brood  and  darker  in  color.  Mr.  Busck  observed  that  a 
female  will  paralyze  all  dermestid  larvae  with  which  it  comes  in 

35 


Fig.  i8. — Liziins  trogodcrniatis :  dermestid  larva 
at  right,   showing  eggs  of  parasite;  full- 
grown  parasite  larva;  at  left ;  adult 
parasite  in  centre  (original). 


Wasps 


contact,  but  it  does  not  use  them  all  for  egg-laying.  The  sting 
does  not  kill  the  dermestid  larva  but  simply  paralyzes  its  motor 
nerves.  It  remains  alive,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  its  ali- 
mentary canal  continues  to  work  and  excreta  are  emitted  from  the 
anus.  In  spite  of  all  the  precautions  taken  by  the  mother  Laelius  to 
assure  herself  of  the  complete  paralyzing  of  her  victim,  occasionally 
this  is  not  complete  and  after  a  few  days  the  dermestid  larva  mohs. 
In  such  cases,  of  course,  the  eggs  of  the  parasite  perish.   Mr. 

Busck  found  the  phenomenon 
of  parthenogenesis  to  occur 
with  this  insect,  a  virgin  female 
in  one  instance  having  laid 
eggs  which  hatched  and  the 
larvae  were  reared  to  the  adult 
condition,  all  of  the  individu- 
als, as  was  quite  to  be  ex- 
pected, being  males.  The 
volume  of  the  eggs  laid  by  a 

Fie.  iq. — Goniozus  sp.,  a.  parasite  of  the      .       ,     ^         ,      .  .   .  ,. 

Codling  moth.    (After  Mariatt.)      Single  female  IS  surpnsmg.    It 
lays  more  than  twice  its  bulk 
in  eggs.      The  female  drinks  water  greedily  and  possibly  takes 
other  food.     In  confinement  it  will  perish  if  left  without  water. 

An  undescribed  Bethylid  of  the  genus  Gonio^iis  in  Kansas 
has  a  similar  life  history,  according  to  Popenoe  and  Mariatt,  but 
this  one  is  of  greater  economic  importance  since  it  attacks  the 
larvae  of  the  codling  moth — the  worm  so  commonly  found  in 
apples.  Just  such  a  cluster  of  parasitic  larvae  as  is  described  above 
was  found  by  Mariatt  upon  an  apple-worm  in  the  interior  of  an 
apple. 


3«> 


Plate  VII, 

WASPS 

FIG. 

FIG. 

1. 

Isodontia  philadelphica 

12. 

2. 

Xenoglossa  spriuna 

u- 

3- 

Monedula  Carolina 

14. 

4- 

Bembex  fasciatus 

.   15- 

5- 

Ammophila  vulgaris 

16. 

6. 

Priononyx  thorns 

■7- 

7- 

Ammophila  pictipennis 

18. 

8. 

Ammophila  luctuosa 

19. 

9- 

Ammophila  gracilis 

20. 

lO. 

Ammophila  pruinosa 

21. 

1 1. 

Arachnophroctonus  tropicus     22. 

Pompilus  maurus 
Sophropompilus  ingenuus 
Arachnophroctonus  atrox 
Entypus  americanus 
Priocnemis  flammipennis 
Isodontia  tibialis 
Mygnimia  ustulata 
Pompilus  philadelphicus 
Sphex  pennsylvanicus 
Pepsis  formosa 
Salius  magnus 


The  Insect  Book. 


w 


THE  ANTS 


(Super-family  Fonnicoidca.) 

All  of  the  true  ants  belong  to  this  group.  They  are  all  very 
characteristic  in  appearance  and  there  are  very  few  other  insects 
which  can  be  mistaken  for  them,  except  possibly  the  so-called 
cow-ants,  or  velvet  ants,  of  the  family  Mutillidse  (super-family 
Vespoidea),  or  the  so-called  white  ants,  which  belong  to  an 
entirely  different  order  and  which  really  should  not  be  called  ants, 
if  popular  names  are  to  coincide  at  all  with  scientific  classification. 
The  true  ants,  however, 
as  shown  in  the  synoptic 
table,  are  readily  distin- 
guished from  all  other 
Hymenoptera,  aside  from 
their  general  and  more 
characteristic  appear- 
ance, by  the  one  or  two 
swellings  on  the  petiole 
of  the  abdomen. 

We  have  seen  with 
the  bees  and  with  the 
wasps  that  while  some 
species  are  social  and  live 
in  communities,  others 
are  solitary  in  their  habits. 
With  the  ants,  however, 
it  is  different;  all  species 


Fig.  20. — Solenopsis  .xyloni.     (After  McCook.) 


live  in  communities  and  are  social  insects.  Social  life  with  certain 
of  the  ants  is  carried  to  the  greatest  extreme  known  in  nature. 
The  differentiation  into  different  castes  or  forms  of  individuals  of 
the  same  species  is  carried  to  a  much  higher  extent  than  with  the 
bees  and  the  wasps.  We  have  seen,  with  the  bumblebees,  the 
beginning  of  a  separation  into  two  classes  of  workers,  that  is  to 
37 


say,  there  are  large  workers  and  small  workers  which  have  dii- 
ferent  functions  in  the  community.  With  the  ants  this  becomes 
almost  the  rule  and  when  we  consider  all  ants  we  find  that  there 
may  be  eight  distinct  castes,  not  all  in  the  same  individual  species, 
though  five  may  occur  in  the  same  species.  There  are  not  only 
the  ordinary  winged  males  and  the  ordinary  winged  females,  the 
large  workers  and  the  small  workers  (workers  major  and  workers 
minor,  as  they  are  termed),  but 
with  certain  species  there  is  a  well 
developed  and  well  adapted  caste 
which  does  the  principal  fighting 
for  the  community  and  which  is 
known  as  the  soldier.  The 
workers,  as  with  the  bees,  are 
simply  infertile  and  undeveloped 
T       u"  jjiwj  females.  They  never  have  wings. 

■^       ^^L  r?^    f^^^\  "^^^^  ^^^^  females  have  wings,  but 

i]  after  the  nuptial  flight  they  are 
discarded  and  only  at  certain 
times  in  the  year  are  winged  in- 
dividuals seen  in  an  ant  com- 
munity. The  true  workers,  when 
examined  as  to  their  internal  anat- 
omy, seem  to  differ  principally 
from  the  true  females  in  that  they 
lack  the  receptaculum  seminis. 
There  are,  however,  with  certain 
ants  forms  which  never  have 
wings  and  which  in  the  female 
sex  possesses  a  receptaculum 
seminis,  and  there  are  correspond- 
ing wingless  males,  that  is,  males 
which  never  develop  wings. 
These  are,  then,  sexually  competent  males  and  females,  neither 
of  which  ever  develop  wings.  This  adds  two  more  structural 
forms  to  the  possible  number  of-forms  in  a  community,  and  they 
are  called  ergatoids.  This  is  a  term  which  will  come  more  fre- 
quently into  use  and  should  be  mentioned,  it  applies  to  both 
sexes,  but  the  females  are  said  to  be  ergatogynous  and  the  males 
are  said  to  be  ergatandrous.  The  eighth  possible  form  occurs 
33 


Fig.  21. — Cremastogaster  lineata. 
C After  McCook.  ) 


exceptionally  and  seems  to  be  intermediate  between  female  and 
worker. 

The  community  life  of  ants  and  their  industry,  thrift  and  sup- 
posed foresight  have  been  the  subject  of  observation  and  comment 
since  the  earliest  times.  The  biblical  references  are  familiar  to  all 
and  the  old  ideas  are  well  formulated  in  part  in  La  Fontaine's 
charming  fable  of  the  Grasshopper  and  the  Ant.  Milton,  Prior  and 
many  other  poets  have  sung  praises  of  the  ant,  and  it  is  safe  to 
use  the  trite  expression  and  say  that  it  is  "fabled  in  song  and 
story."  In  "The  Royal  Dream  Book,"  an  English  north-country 
chapbook,  it  is  said  that  "to  dream  of  ants  denotes  that  you  will 
live  in  a  great  town  or  city,  or  in  a  large  family,  and  that  you  will 
be  industrious,  happy,  well-married  and  have  a  large  family." 

The  ants  form  a 
verylargegroup. 
More  than  two 
thousand  species 
have  been  de- 
scribed. Sharp 
estimates  that 
there  are  prob- 
ably five  thou- 
sand species  in 
existence.  There 

is  a  marked  uni-    _,^^    ^_^„^-^      -■^■m-  ii 
formity  of  struc-  ~~'"^^4^si^^ 

ture  as  well  as  of  Fig. — 22.     Monomorium    minutum. 

habits  in  this  great  group  and  the  systematic  workers  have  so  far 
made  only  eight  families,  of  which  the  Camponotidas,  or  common 
stingless  ants,  and  the  Myrmicidse,  or  stinging  ants,  are  the  most 
familiar  examples  to  persons  living  in  the  more  northern  United 
States.  Representatives  of  the  curious  ants  of  the  family  Pon- 
eridas  occur  in  the  Southern  States. 

Many  stories  have  been  told  of  the  supposed  intelligence  of 
ants,  but  perhaps  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  tell  one  more  which 
has  not  been  published.  In  one  of  the  greenhouses  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  a  medium-sized  black 
ant  occurred  in  considerable  numbers,  attracted  by  the  presence  of 
plant  lice  and  mealy  bugs  upon  the  hothouse  plants.  As  is  well 
known,  ants  are  especially  fond  of  the  nectar  secreted  by  these 
39 


insects.  A  number  of  years  ago  some  Liberian  coffee-trees  were 
started  in  the  greenhouse.  On  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  these 
coffee-trees,  there  exist  at  the  bases  of  certain  of  the  leaf  ribs  some 
very  minute,  nectar-secreting  glands.  The  ants  soon  found  this 
out  and  sipped  the  nectar.  Then  the  idea  occurred  to  some  clever 
ant  that  these  nectar  glands  would  be  the  best  places  in  the  world 
for  mealy  bugs  to  live  and  grow  fat  and  they  would  in  conse- 
quence secrete  a  great  deal  more  nectar  then  they  would  if  they 
lived  on  other  parts  of  the  leaf.  But  the  nectar  glands  were  too 
small  to  accommodate  even  one  good-sized  mealy  bug.  So,  the 
word  was  passed  around  and  the  ants  gnawed  the  edges  of  the 
gland  and  enlarged  it  so  that  it  would  accommodate  a  good-sized 
mealy  bug,  which  was  carried  to  it.  Doubtless  to  the  delight  of 
the  ants,  the  result  was  as  we 
may  imagine  it  to  have  been  an- 
ticipated. Themealy  bug  thrived 
exceedingly.  The  gland  was 
enlarged  still  further  and  a  whole 
family  of  mealy  bugs  was  raised 
in  the  same  hole.  Thus  a  cus- 
tom grew  up  and  many  such 
greatly  enlarged  glands  were 
found  after  a  few  months.  Here 
was  an  ant,  then,  apparently  tak- 
ing advantage  of  an  opportunity 
which  was  new  not  only  to  the 
experience  of  the  individual,  but 
new  to  the  experience  of  the  race, 
and  if  we  adopt  the  most  reason- 
able of  the  definitions  of  instinct  here  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
played positive  intelligence  of  a  high  order. 

In  all  of  these  stories  of  the  seeming  intelligence  of  ants  and 
of  bees,  and  of  other  insects  as  well,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
we  are  running  a  great  risk  in  our  interpretations  for  the  reason 
that  we  make  them  from  a  human  standpoint,  that  is  to  say,  that 
we  consider  these  insects  as  though  they  had  human  person- 
alities. The  observer  and  the  narrator  inject  their  own  personal- 
ities into  the  subjects  investigated  and  in  fact  they  use  words 
which  carry  with  them  meanings  which  may  not  be  warranted 
by  the  facts.  This  fact  is  brought  out  strongly  by  the  German 
40 


Fig.  23. — Tetramorium  casspitum. 
(After  Mar  la  tt.  J 


writer  Bethe,  who  wrote,  in  1898,  on  the  psychological  qualities 
of  ants  and  bees.  He  shows,  for  example,  that  while  we  see,  all 
we  know  about  bees  and  other  insects  is  that  they  are  influenced 
by  the  light  and  that  it  would  be  most  unscientific  to  say  that 
they  do  anything  as  highly  psychical  as  seeing  until  it  is  proved. 
Some  of  the  peculiar  and  apparently  highly  intelligent  things  which 
ants  do,  such  as  recognizing  the  enormous  number  of  members 
of  the  same  colony  and  fighting  instantly  members  of  other 
colonies,  and  such  as  finding  their  way  to  their  own  nests  and  to 
food  supplies  and  communicating  intelligence  of  the  location  of 
food  supplies  from  one  to  the  other,  have  been  carefully  tested 
by  this  author  who  concludes  that  he  can  find  nothing  in  the  phe- 
nomena exhibited  by  bees  or  ants  to  prove  the  existence  of  any 
psychical  quality.  "  They  learn  nothing,  but  act  mechanically  in 
whatever  they  do,  their  complicated  reflexes  being  set  off  by 
simple  physiological  stimuli."* 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  passing  that  Bethe's  conclusions 
were  anticipated  for  a  number  of  years  by  the  famous  American 
naturalist,  Samuel  L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain).  If  any  reader  does 
not  believe  this  let  him  consult  Chapter  XXll  of  a  "Tramp  Abroad". 

No  one  who  has  read  Bethe's  account  of  how  ants  find  their 
way  by  ant-traveled  paths  and  how  easily  they  are  lost  when 
but  a  very  short  distance  from  the  path,  can  help  thinking  of  Mark 
Twain's  inimitable  "chapter  in  natural  history"  which  also  wakes 
a  responsive  chord  in  the  mind  of  every  one  who  has  attempted 
to  see  intelligence  and  design  in  the  movements  of  the  isolated 
ant.  "During  many  summers,  now,  I  have  watched  him,"  says 
Twain,  "when  I  ought  to  have  been  in  better  business,  and  I 
have  not  yet  come  across  a  living  ant  that  seemed  to  have  any 
more  sense  than  a  dead  one.  *  *  *  j  admit  his  industry,  of 
course  ;  he  is  the  hardest  working  creature  in  the  world, — when 
anybody  is  looking, — but  his  leatherheadedness  is  the  point  I 
make  against  him.  He  goes  out  foraging,  he  makes  a  capture, 
and  then  what  does  he  do  ?  Go  home  ?  No, — he  goes  anywhere 
but  home.  He  doesn't  know  where  home  is.  His  home  may 
be  only  three  feet  away, — no  matter,  he  can't  find  it.  He  makes 
his  capture,  as  I  have  said;  it  is  generally  something  which  can  be 
of  no  sort  of  use  to  himself  or  anybody  else ;  it  is  usually  seven  times 

*  Albrecht   Bethe,  Archiv.  f.  d.   Ges.   Phys.   LXX.   15.   100.   January,    1898. 
A  Review  by  Caswell  Grave,  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  XXXII,  pp.  437-439. 

41 


bigger  than  it  ought  to  he;  he  hunts  out  the  awkwardest  place  to 
take  hold  of  it;  he  lifts  it  bodily  up  into  the  air  by  main  force, 
and  starts;  not  toward  home,  but  in  the  opposite  direction;  not 
calmly  and  wisely,  but  with  a  frantic  haste  which  is  wasteful  of 
his  strength;  he  fetches  up  against  a  pebble,  and  instead  of  going 
around  it,  he  climbs  over  it  backwards  dragging  his  booty  after 
him,  tumbles  down  on  the  other  side,  jumps  up  in  a  passion, 
kicks  the  dust  off  his  clothes,  moistens  his  hands,  grabs  his  prop- 
erty viciously,  yanks  it  this  way,  then  that,  shoves  it  ahead  of 
him  a  moment,  turns  tail  and  lugs  it  after  him  a  moment,  gets 
madder,  then  presently  hoists  it  into  the  air  and  goes  tearing 
away  in  an  entirely  new  direction;  comes  to  a  weed;  it  never 
occurs  to  him  to  go  around  it,  he  must  climb  it;  and  he  does 
climb  it,  dragging  his  worthless  property  to  the  top — which  is 
as  bright  a  thing  to  do  as  it  would  be  for  me  to  carry  a  sack  of 
flour  from  Heidelburg  to  Paris  by  way  of  Strasburg  steeple; 
when  he  gets  up  there  he  finds  that  is  not  the  place;  takes  a  cur- 
sory glance  at  the  scenery  and  either  climbs  down  again  or 
tumbles  down,  and  starts  off  once  more — as  usual  in  a  new  di- 
rection. At  the  end  of  half  an  hour  he  fetches  up  within  six 
inches  of  the  place  he  started  from  and  lays  his  burden  down  *  *  *." 
After  continuing  this  charmingly  aimless  work  for  some  time  and 
meeting  another  ant  and  fighting  him  about  nothing,  "each  starts 
off  in  a  different  direction  to  see  if  he  can't  find  an  old  nail  or  some- 
thing else  that  is  heavy  enough  to  afford  entertainment  and  at  the 
same  time  valueless  enough  to  make  an  ant  want  to  own  it." 

Wasmann  has  just  published  some  important  observations  in 
which  he  shows  that  ants  of  the  genus  Lasius  appear  to  deter- 
mine direction  only  by  paths  previously  traveled  by  members 
of  the  same  community  and  which  they  distinguish  by  the 
sense  of  smell  located  in  the  antennae,  but  that  certain  ants  of  the 
genus  Formica  proceed  directly  to  the  desired  point  without  fol- 
lowing paths,  using  apparently  sight  as  the  directing  influence. 
Some  little  understood  sense  of  orientation,  however,  may  lead  to 
this  result  and  such  a  sense  of  course  would  be  instinctive. 

The  community  life  of  ants  seems  almost  perfect.  It  has  been 
likened  to  a  perfect  republic  where  each  works  for  the  good  of 
the  whole  community,  each  having  his  appointed  work,  laboring 
constantly  for  the  good  of  all,  and  each  ready  to  sacrifice  himself 
for  the  good  of  all.  Most  of  the  writings  on  the  habits  of  ants 
42 


deal  with  European  species.  Little  is  known  of  an  exact  nature 
about  the  full  details  of  the  life  history  of  any  one  species  which 
inhabits  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States.  Random  notes 
and  occasional  observations  have  been  published,  but  a  thorough, 
conscientious  study  of  all  of  the  aspects  of  the  life  of  one  of  our 
commoner  forms  is  still  to  be  made.  Even  the  little  red  ant  of 
households  ( Mojiomoriuin  pharaonis),  or  the  pavement  ant 
(Tetramorittm  ca'spitum),  or  the  common  black  carpenter  ant 
(Campoiiotiis  penusylvanicus),  or  any  of  the  common  species  of 
Lasius  or  Formica,  afford  subjects  for  investigation  which  may 
everywhere  be  found  and  which  should  be  studied  through  one  or 
two  years  by  some  careful  observer  willing  to  record  all  that  he  sees. 
There  need  be  no  great  interruption  from  the  weather,  since 
colonies  of  ants  can  be  studied  to  advantage  indoors.  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  in  his  charming  book  entitled,  "Ants,  Bees  and 
Wasps,"  carried  such  colonies  along  for  several  years.  He  kept 
in  captivity,  in  fact,  about  half  of  the  British  species  of  ants,  as 
well  as  a  considerable  number  of  foreign  forms,  and  for  several 
years  he  had  generally  from  thirty  to  forty  communities  under 
observation.  He  found  that  the  most  convenient  method  was  to 
keep  them  in  nests  consisting  of  two  plates  of  common  window- 
glass  about  ten  inches  square,  and  at  a  distance  apart  of  one-tenth 
to  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  in  fact,  just  sufficiently  deep  to  allow 
the  ants  freedom  of  motion,  with  slips  of  wood  around  the 
edges,  the  intermediate  space  being  filled  up  with  fine  earth. 
The  nests  were  kept  covered  over,  except  when  under  actual 
observation,  since  ants  very  much  dislike  light  in  their  nests. 
On  one  side  a  small  door  was  left.  These  glass  nests  were  either 
kept  in  shallow  boxes  with  loose  glass  covers,  resting  on  baize, 
which  admitted  enough  air,  or  on  stands  surrounded  either  by 
water  or  by  fur  with  the  hairs  pointing  downward.  Some  of 
the  nests  were  arranged  upon  stands.  Comstock  tells  how  the 
habits  of  ants  can  be  studied  in  a  school-room  by  establishing  a 
colony  in  an  artificial  nest.  His  arrangement  practically  follows 
that  of  Sir  John  Lubbock.  He  takes  two  pieces  of  window- 
glass  ten  inches  square,  a  sheet  of  tin  eleven  inches  square  and  a 
piece  of  plank  one  and  one-fourth  inches  thick,  twenty  inches 
long  and  at  least  sixteen  inches  wide.  He  cuts  a  triangular  piece, 
about  an  inch  long  on  its  two  short  sides,  from  one  corner  of  one 
of  the  panes  of  glass.     From  the  sheet  of  tin  he  makes  a  tray 

43 


three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  depth.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the 
plank,  a  short  distance  from  the  edge,  he  cuts  a  deep  furrow. 
This  furrow  is  i<ept  filled  with  water  in  order  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  ants.  The  tin  tray  is  placed  on  the  plank,  within 
the  furrow,  the  square  pane  of  glass  is  laid  in  the  tray,  and  along 
the  edges  of  the  glass  are  laid  four  strips  of  wood  about  a  half 
an  inch  wide  and  a  little  thicker  than  the  height  of  the  ants  to  be 
kept,  then  a  layer  of  fine  earth  is  placed  in,  and  the  pane  of  glass 
of  which  one  corner  has  been  cut  off  is  laid  on  the  strips  of  wood, 
and  the  whole  is  covered  with  something  which  will  keep  the 
nest  dark. 

The  general  features  of  the  community  life  of  ants  of  the 
commoner  genera  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows  :  A 
community  is  supposed  to  be  founded  by  a  single  queen  which 
lays  white  or  yellowish,  elongate  eggs,  which  hatch  in  two 
weeks  or  more.  The  larvae  are  white,  legless,  helpless  creatures 
which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  colony,  are  attended  by  the  queen 
and  which  develop  into  workers.  As  the  community  grows, 
egg-laying  is  continuous,  new  queens  are  born  and  these  pair 
with  the  males  and  lay  eggs,  the  workers,  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  make  their  appearance,  taking  care  of  the  larvae,  feeding  them 
and  carrying  them  about  from  chamber  to  chamber  in  order  to 
secure  the  suitable  warmth  and  moisture.  In  different  parts  of 
the  community  will  be  found  larvae  of  comparatively  similar  size, 
the  smallest  ones  in  one  place,  larger  ones  in  another,  and  still 
larger  in  another.  These  larvae  have  to  be  fed  for  a  month  or 
more,  according  to  the  species,  and  when  full  grown  transform 
to  pupae,  sometimes  naked,  sometimes  covered  with  a  silken 
cocoon.  The  cocoon  is  usually  white,  and  is  also  carried  about 
to  suitable  places  by  the  workers.  When  an  ant  colony  is  dis- 
turbed the  workers  are  seen  scurrying  about,  carrying  these 
cocoons,  endeavoring  to  carry  them  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  the 
common  idea  is  that  these  cocoons  are  eggs,  but  they  are  a  great 
deal  larger  than  eggs.  In  three  to  four  weeks  the  pupae  emerge, 
and  in  emerging  from  the  cocoons  they  are  helped  by  the 
workers,  which  are  said  to  take  the  greatest  care  of  them, 
unfolding  their  legs  and  helping  them  expand  their  wings. 
The  males  die  very  soon  as  a  rule,  but  the  females  and  the 
workers  are  very  long-lived.  Lubbock  kept  two  queens  for 
more  than  seven  years,  and  certain  workers  more  than  six. 
44 


The  life  of  an  ant  community  is  practically  perpetual,  thus 
differing  greatly  from  the  community  life  of  wasps  and  bumble- 
bees. The  nests  vary  greatly  in  form.  Some  ants  occupy  gal- 
leries and  chambers  in  the  ground.  Others  make  extensive 
galleries  and  chambers  in  decaying  wood.  Others  build  mounds. 
Still  others  construct  nests  of  a  paste-like  substance,  and  in 
tropical  regions  there  are  extraordinary  variations  in  the  manner 
in  which  nests  are  built  and  in  the  material  which  composes  the 
nests.  The  ants  themselves  feed  upon  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
stances. Under  natural  conditions  they  are  both  carnivorous  and 
vegetable  feeders,  eating  various  plant  substances,  fruit,  and  other 
insects,  as  well  as  the  dead  bodies  of  higher  animals.  They  are 
especially  fond  of  the  sweet  sap  of  certain  trees,  and  of  the 
secretions  of  plant  lice,  of  scale  insects,  and  of  certain  leaf 
hoppers  and  tree  hoppers.  In  an  old  community  the  number  of 
ants  may  be  very  great,  extending  high  into  the  hundreds  of 
thousands,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  while 
the  ants  of  one  community  are  perfectly  able  to  recognize  other 
members  of  the  same  community,  no  matter  how  great  their 
number,  they  also  recognize  at  once  and  either  resent  or  have 
nothing  to  do  with  members  of  other  communities,  even  of  the 
same  species. 

The  battles  of  ants,  the  slave-making  habits  of  certain  species, 
the  extraordinary  variety  of  the  guest  insects  which  are  found  in 
ants'  nests  and  their  diverse  functions  in  the  community,  the  re- 
lations of  ants  with  plant  lice  and  other  insects  which  afford  them 
one  of  their  articles  of  diet,  have  so  often  been  described  in  other 
works  that  it  would  be  a  vain  repetition  to  dilate  upon  them  here. 
The  strange  facts  connected  with  their  agricultural  pursuits,  with 
the  occupation  of  mushroom-growing  which  is  cultivated  by  cer- 
tain species,  the  remarkable  features  of  the  lives  of  the  honey  ants 
and,  in  fact,  everything  connected  with  ant  economy  offers  most 
fascinating  reading,  even  to  persons  not  especially  interested  in 
nature. 

The  honey  ants  deserve  more  than  passing  mention,  even 
though  they  are  found  in  this  country  only  in  the  far  West  and  at 
high  elevations.  The  peculiarity  of  these  creatures  is  that  one 
form  has  the  abdomen  distended  the  size  of  a  currant  and  entirely 
filled  with  grape  sugar,  or  "  honey."  The  nest  is  a  low,  gravel- 
covered  mound  about  six  inches  in  diameter  and  two  or  three 

45 


inches  high.  The  honey-bearers  are  found  clinging  to  the  roofs 
of  the  chambers,  a  few  inches  under  the  ground,  and  seem  to  act 
simply  as  cells  for  the  storing  of  the  sweet  substance  which  is 
collected  by  the  active  workers  from  the  exudations  of  a  gall 
which  is  found  upon  a  dwarf  oak.  In  times  of  famine  and  in 
seasons  when  the  exudation  is  not  forthcoming  the  honey-bearer 
regurgitates  the  honey,  drop  by  drop,  and  it  is  transferred  to  the 
stomachs  of  the  individuals  in  waiting.  In  other  respects  the 
economy  of  the  colony  does  not  differ  materially  from  other 
species.  There  is  practically  with  this  insect  a  new  caste  of 
workers  which  probably  are  not  gradually  transformed  by  the 
distension  of  the  crop  and  the  expansion  of  the  abdomen,  but 
which  have  some  peculiar  structure  or  form  of  the  intestine  and 
abdominal  walls  which  gives  them  a  tendency  to  this  change. 


Fig.  24. — Ants  at  play.     ( Redrawn  from  McCook.) 

They  become  simply  animated  pantries  for  the  use  of  the  others 
in  time  of  want.  Dr.  H.  C.  McCook  has  written  a  charming 
book  upon  this  subject,  which  is  entitled,  "The  Honey  Ants  and 
the  Occident  Ants, "  and  the  same  distinguished  entomologist  and 
divine  has  written  another  book,  entitled,  "The  Agricultural  Ant 
of  Texas,"  which  gives  a  most  interesting  account  of  the  most 
interesting  ants  found  in  this  country,  and  which  includes  at  the 
same  time  many  observations,  scattered  here  and  there  throughout 
the  volume,  on  other  ants  to  be  found  in  the  United  States. 

A  word  may  well  be  said  of  the  household  ants.  The  little 
red  ant  (Monomorium  pharaonis)  has  become  thoroughly  do- 
mesticated, passing  its  entire  existence  in  houses  and  having  its 
nests  in  the  walls  or  beneath  the  flooring.  The  little  black  ant, 
( Monotnoritim  iiiiniitiim),  and  the  pavement  ant  of  the  Eastern 
States  ( Tetramorium  cccspitum)  are  also  frequently  found  in 
46 


Plate   VIII. 
WASPS,    ANTS   AND    ICHNEUMON    FLIES 


1.  Mutilla  4-guttata 

2.  Dasymutilla  zelaya 

3.  Sphserophthalma  sackeni 

4.  Sphaerophthalma  fenestrata 

5.  Sphserophthalma  orcus 

6.  Sphsrophthalma  simillima 

7.  Sphserophthalma  cypris 

8.  Myzine  namea  f, 

9.  Photopsis  imperialis 

10.  Sphi^rophthalma  macra 

11.  Brachycistus  idiotse 

12.  Tiphia  inornata 

13.  Myzine  namea  $ 

14.  Photopsis  imperialis 

15.  Sphasrophtiiaima  auripilis 

16.  Brachycistus  castanea 

17.  Discolia  lecontei 

18.  Myzine  obscura 

19.  Nomisephagus  sanborni 

20.  Nomiaephagus  sanborni 

21.  Mutilla  ornata 


24. 

2S- 
26. 
27. 
2S. 
29. 
30. 


34- 

9S. 

36. 

37- 
38. 
^q. 
40. 
41. 
42. 


Elis  xantiana 

Odontomachus  haematodes 
Pogonomyrmex  barbatus 
Elis  4-maculata 
Formica  Integra 
Formica  Integra 
Pogonomyrmex  transversLim 
Labidus  mexicana 
Atta  fervens 
Camponotus  melleus 
Camponotus  melleus 
Iphiaulax  eurygaster 
Phasgoneura  sulcata 
Atta  fervens 
Amphibolips  contluens 
Hemiteles  thyridopterygis 
Thalessa  nortoni 
Glyptomorpha  ligatus 
Labidus  savi 
Helcon  ligatus 
Trogus  4-leonus 


The  Insect  Book. 


houses.  They  are  not  so  destructive  to  household  effects  as  they 
are  annoying  through  their  presence  on  articles  of  food.  A  friend 
once  told  me  a  beautiful  story  of  how  he  once  bought  a  piece  of 
blackberry  pie  one  night,  in  a  dimly  lighted  railroad  eating 
house  in  a  western  town.  He  began  to  eat  it  and  discovered  an 
acid  flavor  which  he  did  not  expect,  and,  carrying  it  to  the  light, 
found  it  swarming  with  Monomorium  pharaonis.  This  is  not  an 
uncommon  experience  and  simply  indicates  the  countless  num- 
bers in  which  these  little  creatures  occur  sometimes  in  houses. 
How  to  get  rid  of  these  ants  is  a  difficult  and  serious  question. 
Their  nests,  occurring  usually  in  walls,  are  hard  to  locate.  Trap- 
ping them  with  sweetened  sponges  afterwards  soaked  in  hot 
water  is  apparently  sometimes  almost  hopeless  on  account  of 
their  infinite  number.  Careful  watching,  however,  will  usually 
show  the  crack  through  which  most  of  them  enter  the  pantry  or 
the  dining  room,  and  then  squirting  in  kerosene  with  a  large 
syringe  through  this  crack  will  often  stop  the  incursions  ;  or,  the 
crack  may  be  packed  with  cotton  soaked  in  kerosene,  driving  it 
in  with  a  table  knife. 

Dr.  William  JVl.  Wheeler  has  recently  published  some  very 
important  studies  of  the  peculiar  ants  of  the  family  Poneridse,  as 
they  occur  in  Texas  (Biological  Bulletin,  Vol.  II.,  No.  i,  October, 
1900).  These  ants  make  rather  primitive  nests  and  they  seem 
to  be  generalized  creatures  from  a  socialistic  standpoint.  They 
do  not  seem  to  feed  one  another  like  the  specialized  ants,  but  they 
have  the  same  habits  regarding  the  cleanliness  of  the  individuals 
and  of  the  nests.  Their  larvae  differ  from  those  of  other  ants,  as 
do  their  eggs.  They  are  not  nearly  so  prolific  as  are  other  ants 
and  the  feeding  habits  of  the  larvae  are  very  remarkable.  The 
workers  capture  another  insect,  cut  it  into  pieces  and  scatter  the 
pieces  among  the  larvas,  which  insert  their  long  necks  through 
the  cut  surfaces,  feeding  upon  the  juices  of  the  recently  killed 
insect.  Dr.  Wheeler  found  that  there  is  no  such  sharp  distinction 
between  the  sterile  and  the  fertile  female  with  the  Poneridae  as 
with  the  more  specialized  ants.  He  finds  an  irregular  polymor- 
phism in  both  sexes.  The  workers  have  the  same  habit  of 
opening  the  cocoons  and  drawing  out  the  pups  which  are  ready 
to  transform.  Ten  or  a  dozen  workers  were  observed  to  gather 
around  a  prematurely  extracted  pupa  and  lick  it  for  hours. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  study  of  ant  colo- 

47 


nies  is  the  wonderful  diversity  of  guest  insects  which  are  found 
in  them.  Insects  of  several  different  orders  may  be  found,  in- 
cluding beetles,  grasshoppers,  plant  lice,  bark  lice  and  Thysan- 
urans  as  well  as  mites.  All  these  creatures  play  some  part  or 
another  in  the  economy  of  the  community.  Several  are  cared  for 
by  the  ants  and  furnish  food  through  their  secretions.  Others 
live  at  the  expense  of  the  ants,  either  as  true  parasites  or  as 
partakers  of  ant  food.  Wasmann  has  long  made  a  study  of  these 
ant  guests  and  his  papers  afford  such  fascinating  reading  that 
they  should  be  generally  translated  into  English  for  the  benefit  of 
persons  engaged  in  nature  study. 


Typical  Life  History. 

From  the  observations  oi  Dr.  McCook  on  the  agricultural 
ant  of  Texas  a  nearly  complete  typical  life  history  could  be  drawn 
up,  but  the  geographic  range  of  this  ant  is  so  uncharacteristic  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  that  it  does  not  seem  wise 
to  devote  the  necessary  space  to  such  a  treatment.  The  absence, 
therefore,  of  a  typical  life  history  in  such  an  abundant  and  com- 
mon group  as  the  ants  will  serve  to  emphasize,  as  strongly  as 
anything  which  has  been  said,  the  ease  with  which  novel  and 
important  observations  can  be  made  upon  insects.  It  is  the 
earnest  hope  of  the  writer  that  some  student  will  take  up,  for 
example,  the  large  carpenter  ant,  Campoiwtus  peiinsylvanicus, 
study  it  most  carefully  and  compare  his  observations  with  those 
of  European  writers  upon  congeneric  forms,  although,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  representatives  of  this  particular  genus  are  not 
abundant  in  Europe.  Whoever  begins  the  careful  study  of  this 
large  carpenter  ant  must  first  read  Dr.  H.  C.  McCook's  interesting 
paper  entitled  "Notes  on  the  Architecture  and  Habits  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Carpenter  Ant  "  published  in  Vol.  V.  of  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Entomological  Society,  pp.  277-289. 


THE  PROCTOTRYPOID  PARASITES 

(Super-family  Proctotrypoidea.) 

With  the  consideration  of  the  insects  of  this  group  we  first 
meet  with  forms  which  were  formerly  grouped  together  in  a  sec- 
tion called  the  Hymenoptera  parasitica,  the  true  parasitic  Hymen- 
optera.  In  the  old  system  this  included  the  families  Ichneumonidae, 
Braconidse,  Chalcididae  and  Proctotrypida.  Other  groups  have 
been  added  since,  and  entomologists  now,  following  Ashmead, 
consider  the  Proctotrypoidea,  in  spite  of  their  invariably  parasitic 
habits,  to  be  more  closely  allied  to  the  Vespoidea  and  Cynipoidea 
than  to  the  Ichneumon  flies  and  the  Chalcis  flies.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly true  as  to  structure,  and  it  will  be  remembered  some 
of  the  Vespoidea  which  we  have  just  been  considering  are  para- 
sitic in  their  habits,  while,  as  will  be  seen  when  we  take  up  the 
Cynipoidea,  some  of  these  insects  too,  although  most  of  them 
are  gall-makers,  are  truly  parasitic  in  their  life. 

Hoii'  internal  parasites  live. — The  development  of  the  larvae 
of  those  parasitic  insects  which  live  within  the  bodies  of  other 
insects  has  been  the  subject  of  much  speculation  and  some  in- 
vestigation. How  these  creatures  breathe,  nourish  themselves, 
move,  cast  their  skins,  and  pass  their  excrement  have  been  mooted 
points.  Cuvier  thought  that  these  larvae  breathe  by  placing  their 
spiracles  in  relation  with  those  of  the  insect  in  which  they  live. 
Ratzeburg  showed  that  some  of  them  have  a  curious  caudal 
appendage  with  very  thin  walls,  and  this  he  thought  acted  as  a 
blood  gill,  oxygen  being  gained  through  its  walls  from  the  puri- 
fied blood  of  the  host  insect.  Boisduval  concluded  that  they  do 
not  take  nourishment  through  the  mouth;  that  they  do  not 
breathe,  and  that  they  void  no  excrement,  the  larvas  being  analo- 
gous to  the  foetus  in  mammals,  which  lives  the  life  of  the  mother. 
Newport  described  the  larvae  of  certain  Ichneumon  flies  as  having 
no  anus,  the  rectum  and  its  orifice  being  rapidly  developed  at  the 
final  molt  of  the  larvae.  The  older  authors  thought  that  these 
49 


Y 


The  Proctotrypoid  Parasites 

larvas  attack  only  the  fatty  tissues  of  the  host,  or  that  they  nourish 
themselves  exclusively  on  the  lymph. 

Through  the  work  of  a  recent  French  author,  Seurat,  we 
now  understand  better  how  these  internal  parasites  live.  They 
have  very  sharp  jaws,  and  use  them  in  order  to  pierce  the  tissue 
of  the  host.  The  digestive  tube  has  a  very  voluminous  stomach 
which  is  closed  behind,  and  which  serves  as  a  storehouse  for 
food  which  is  digested  later.  A  small  quantity  of  food  digested 
at  once  suffices  for  the  immediate  wants  of  the  larvae.  The  void- 
ing of  the  excrement  takes  place  only  in  the  interior  of  the 
cocoon,  the  stomach  not  opening  until  the  larva  changes  to 
pupa.  The  parasite  larva  feeds  upon  the  fat  and  blood  and 
the  lymph,  and  in  most  cases  devours  everything  except  the  skin 
and  the  air  vessels.  It  respects  the  viscera  up  to  the  last  limit, 
and  only  sacrifices  them  at  the  end.     In  the  youngest  of  these 

internal  parasites  the  air 
vessels  have  not  ap- 
peared, and  they  breathe 
by  absorbing  oxygen 
through  the  skin  from 
the  blood  of  the  insect  in 
which  they  live.  The  skin 
J  "is  very  delicate  and  the 

Fig.  25.— Pelecinus  polyturatur.  OXygen     paSSeS    through 

(Ater  Packard.)  ^.y      oSmosis.        A      little 

later  the  air  vessels  begin  to  appear  and  become  very  complicated, 
branching  all  through  the  skin.  The  skin  in  fact  appears  as  if 
carpeted  with  an  extremely  rich  network  of  fine  breath-i 
ing  tubes.  In  no  place  do  these  breathing  tubes  open  through 
the  skin  but  the  oxygen  is  absorbed  into  them  through 
the  skin  from  the  blood  of  the  host.  When  the  parasite  leaves 
its  host  its  spiracles  or  breathing  holes  open,  and  the  outside  air 
enters  through  them  into  the  air  vessels.  Contrary  to  the  old 
idea,  these  internal  parasites  sometimes  molt,  and  the  cast  skin 
slips  from  the  anal  end  of  the  body  into  the  open  space  behind 
it.  A  remarkable  observation  has  been  made  by  Marchal,  who 
states  that  a  single  egg  of  Encyrtus  laid  in  the  egg  of  a  little 
Tineid  moth  divides  up  into  a  great  number  of  embryos  which 
develop  into  individual  larvae  in  the  larva  of  the  host. 

These  remarks  are  general,  and  apply  in  a  way  to  all  of  the 
5° 


The  Proctotrypoid  Parasites 


parasitic  Hymenoptera.  In  the  Proctotrypoidea  a  curious  hyper- 
metamorphosis  occurs  in  certain  egg  parasites  in  which  there  are 
three  distinct  forms  of  the  larva  of  the  same  species,  one  form 
resembling  the  little  aquatic  animals  of  the  genus  Cyclops. 

The  eggs  of  the  Proctotrypoids  are  ovate,  with  a  peduncle 
at  the  end.  Nearly  all  of  the  larvas  live  within  other  insects. 
Very  many  of  them  live  in  insect  eggs,  undergoing  their  trans- 
formations within  these  eggs,  sometimes  a  half-dozen  or  more 
being  found  within  a  single  egg-shell.  Still  others  live  within 
the  larvae  or  the  pupae  of  insects,  in  which  case  they  gnaw  their 
way  out  before  spinning  cocoons,  or  sometimes  transform  within 
the  body  of  the  host,  in  which  case  there  is  usually  no  cocoon, 
the  skin  of  the  host  giving  ample  protection.  The  insects  of 
one  genus,  Trichacis,  develop  in  the  nervous  system  of  the  larvae 
of  one  of  the  little  gall  midges,  while  the  larvae  of  another  genus, 
Polygnotus,  develop  in  the  diges- 
tive tract  of  the  same  insect. 

As  just  stated,  many  of  them 
develop  in  the  eggs  of  other  in- 
sects, such  as  butterflies,  moths  and 
true  bugs,  as  well  as  grasshoppers. 
Many  times  students  interested  in 
rearing  butterflies  from  the  egg  will 
be  disappointed,  instead  of  hatching 
out  caterpillars  to  find  numbers  of 
the  extremely  minute  black  four- 
winged  flies  of  the  Proctotrypoid 
genus  Telenomus,  which  make  their 
appearance  through  minute  perfora- 
tions in  the  egg-shell.  The  eggs 
of  the  mourning-cloak  butterfly  (Euvauessa  antiopa)  are  espe- 
cially apt  to  suffer  in  this  way. 

Other  Proctotrypoids  live  in  the  larvas  of  gall-flies,  gall-gnats, 
of  many  kinds  of  flies,  of  butterflies  and  moths  and  beetles,  and 
in  plant-lice,  and  the  eggs  of  spiders,  as  well  as  of  bugs,  butter- 
flies and  moths.  Some  of  the  species  (of  the  genus  Bceus)  which 
live  in  spider  eggs  are  very  curious,  wingless  creatures  of 
simple  form. 

The  curious  family  PelecinidiE  is  placed  in  this  super-family 
by  Ashmead,  and  it  forms  an  exception  to  the  remainder  of  the 
51 


Fig.  26. — Bseus  americanus. 
(Author's  illustration.) 


The  Proctotrypoid  Parasites 

insects  with  which  it  is  thus  associated  from  the  fact  that  the 
trochanters  are  not  divided;  that  is  to  say,  they  appear  to  be 
formed  of  but  one  segment.  They  are  very  curious  creatures 
with  an  extremely  long  and  slender  abdomen,  and  look  like 
Ichneumon  flies.  This  elongation  of  the  abdomen  occurs  only 
in  the  female  sex.  The  male  has  a  more  normal  abdomen.  In 
their  early  stages  they  are  probably  parasitic  upon  the  larvae  of 
beetles.  Pelecinus  polyturator  is  our  commonest  species,  and 
Professor  Forbes  states  that  he  has  bred  it  from  May  beetle  larvae. 


THE  GALL-FLIES 


( Super-fmnily  Cynipoidea.) 

To  this  group  belong  the  true  gall-flies,  as  well  as  certain 
insects  which  are  inquilines,  or  gall-fly  guests,  and  also  certain 
forms  which  are  true  parasites.  Although  we  call  the  Cynipoids 
the  true  gall-flies,  there  are  many  other  insects  which  make  galls, 
such  as  some  of  the  two-winged  flies  of  the  families  Cecidomyiidae 
and  Trypetidae,  cer- 
tain caterpillars,  a  few 
Chalcis  flies,  and  a  few 
beetles,  as  well  as  cer- 
tain mites  and  scale 
insects.  Certain  of  the 
oak  galls  formed  by 
Cynipoids  were  early 
used  in  the  manufac- 
tureof  ink,and  laterfor 
tannin,  so  that  when 
one  speaks  of  gall- 
flies these  creatures 
are  always  thought  of. 

They    are    small    dark         Fig- 27— Cynip=  .sponginca.     (After  RiUy.) 

colored  four-winged  flies,  at  once  distinguished  from  their  close 
allies  by  the  venation  of  the  wings  and  the  structure  of  the  thorax, 
as  pointed  out  in  the  analytical  table. 

Those  which  make  galls  lay  their  eggs  in  the  tissues  of  the 
growing  plant,  and  the  larvae  when  hatched  feed  upon  the  plant 
cells  and  their  contents.  A  very  slight  gall  deformation  may 
result,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  there  is  a  rapid  growth  of 
plant-cells  and  a  curious  enlargement  of  variable  shape  which  is 
called  a  gall. 

The  nature  of  the  gall  has  long  been  a  disputed  point.  It 
was  at  first  thought  that  it  was  a  purely  vegetable  growth  and 
S3 


The  Gall-FJies 


that  the  little  grubs  found  within  it  were  the  result  of  spontaneous 
generation.  Later  it  was  supposed  that  galls  were  caused  by  the 
punctures  of  insects  and  the   injection  of  a   poisonous   liquid. 

With  the  true  gall-flies, 
however,  the  gall  appar- 
ently does  not  commence 
to  form  until  after  the  egg 
hatches.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  larva  secretes  a 
liquid  which  causes  the 
abnormal  growth  of  the 
plant,  the  plant  cells 
which  are  most  active  in 
growth  and  subdivision 
being  directly  affected. 

The  egg  of  the  gall- 
fly is  slender,  and  has  a 
very  long  petiole  which 
is  six  to  ten  times  the 
length  of  the  egg  body, 
and  this  is  inserted  by 
means  of  a  very  long 
curiously  formed  ovi- 
positor. A  good  account 
of  the  method  of  ovipo- 
sition  reported  by  Riley 
from  observations  made 
by  Pergande  will  be 
found  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Washington  (Vol.  111.  pp. 
260-263). 

Most  of  the  Cynipoids  make  galls  upon  oak.  Others,  how- 
ever, are  found  upon  rose  bushes.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are 
affected — roots,  stems,  twigs  and  leaves,  as  well  as  leaf  petioles. 
In  some  galls  but  a  single  larva  develops,  while  in  others  very 
many  develop.  The  oak  galls  of  commerce  are  European  galls, 
but  some  of  our  native  galls  would  undoubtedly  be  found  to 
possess  commercial  value  through  the  quantities  of  tannin  they 
possess. 

The  origin  of  tannin  in  galls  has  been  the  subject  of  investi- 

54 


Fig.  28. — Diastrophus  nebulosus. 
(After  Kihy.) 


The  Gall-Flies 

gation  by  Kraemer.  He  finds  that  gallic  acid  is  formed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  starch  during  the  chrysalis  stage  of  the  insect.  With 
the  maturing  of  the  winged  insect,  the  gallic  acid  is  changed  to 
tannic  acid.  The  transformation  of  gallic  acid  into  tannin  is 
accomplished  by  the  condensation  of  two  molecules  of  the  for- 
mer with  the  loss  of  one  molecule  of  water. 

Most  of  these  insects  are  single-brooded  and  develop  but  one 
generation  in  the  year.  Under  unfavorable  circumstances,  how- 
ever, this  period  may  be  greatly  lengthened,  and  circumstances 
are  on  record  where  the  flies  have  emerged  only  after  two  or  three 
years.  Certain  moisture  conditions  favor  the  proper  issuing,  and 
when  these  are  lacking  the  development  is  retarded. 

Some  very  curious  alternations  of  generations  occur  among 
these  insects.  Of  certain  species,  and  indeed  of  certain  genera, 
for  years  only  the  female  sex  was  known,  and  it  was  afterward 
discovered,  first  by  Riley  and  afterward  by  Adler,  that  what  had 
been  considered  two  entirely  distinct  forms  were  really  the  same 
species,  but  that  one  generation  included  both  sexes  while  the 
alternate  generation  comprised  only  females  which  reproduced 
parthenogenetically. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  facts  connected  with  the  gall-flies 
is  that  a  particular  part  of  the  plant  is  always  affected  by  the  same 
species,  and  that  each  species  of  the  same  generation  always  pro- 
duces a  deformation  or  gall  of  exactly  the  same  character,  so  that 
the  gall  alone  identifies  the  species  of  insect,  and  in  fact  for  a  long 
time  generic  and  specific  names  were  given  to  the  galls  before  the 
insects  were  named,  the  name  subsequently  being  applied  to  the 
insect  itself 

The  full  development  of  none  of  the  American  gall-making 
Cynipoids  has  been  studied  with  the  care  which  this  subject  should 
have  and  doubtless  there  are  many  interesting  and  important  facts 
yet  to  be  discovered. 

The  guest  gall-flies  closely  resemble  the  true  gall-flies,  but 
lay  their  eggs  in  galls  already  formed  by  the  true  gall-flies,  their 
larvae  living  upon  the  plant  growth  produced  by  the  true  gall- 
fly larvae. 

The  parasitic  gall-flies  live  as  true  internal  parasites  in  other 
insects,  mainly  plant  lice  and  the  larvae  of  dipterous  insects. 

About  fifteen  hundred  species  of  this  super-family  have  been 
described. 

55 


THE  CHALCIS  FLIES 

( Sjipcr-family  Chalcidoidca.) 


This  group  of  parasitic  Hymenoptera  is  probably  the  largest 
in  number  of  species  of  any  of  the  corresponding  Hymenopterous 
groups.  It  is  a  well  defined  and  well  limited  group  structurally 
speaking  and  comprises  undoubtedly  many  thousands  of  species. 
Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  species  have  as  yet  been  described. 
As  a  rule  the  insects  are  so  small  that  they  attract  no  attention  from 
the  average  collector  and  the  paucity  of  our  specific  knowledge 
of  the  group  possibly  arises  from  this  fact.  The  writer  was  the 
first  entomologist  in  America  to  undertake  the  systematic  study  of 
the  Chalcidoidea  and  he  and  his  colleague,  Mr.  Ashmead,  have 

had  the  field  practically  to 
themselves  for  the  past  20 
years.  In  the  course  of  this 
time,  however,  we  have 
described  many  hundreds 
of  species  and  have  learned 
many  interesting  facts  about 
the  strange  life  histories  and 
relationships  with  other  in- 
sects, many  more  of  which 
remain  to  be  noted  by  care- 
ful observers.  Almost  all 
of  the  forms  are  truly  parasitic,  the  exceptions  being  certain  gall- 
making  species  belonging  to  the  genus  isosoma  and  its  allies  and 
possibly  the  seed  inhabiting  species  of  the  genus  Megastigmus. 
Nowhere  in  nature  is  there  a  more  marked  example  of  the  co- 
relation  between  structure  and  habits  than  occurs  in  this  family. 
This  co-relation  descends  to  the  relation  between  the  parasites  and 
their  hosts  so  that  it  is  possible  for  an  experienced  person  on 
seeing  a  new  species  of  Chalcis  fly  to  tell  precisely  what  kind  of 
an  insect  it  will  be  found  to  be  parasitic  upon.  For  example,  the 
56 


Fig.  29. — Pachyneuron  micans.  How. 
(Author's  illiistratioti. ) 


Plate   IX. 
ICHNEUMON    FLIES   AND   CHALCIS   FLIES 


I. 

Thalessa  atrata 

lO. 

2. 

Odontomus  stigmapterus 

II. 

3- 

Thalessa  iunator  6 

12. 

4- 

Thalessa  Iunator? 

'3- 

5- 

Eremotylus  texanus 

14. 

6. 

Chaicis  mariae 

15- 

7- 

Chalcis  ovata 

16. 

8. 

Ophion  macrurum 

'7- 

9- 

Anomalon  apicale 

FIG. 

10.  Pimpla  conquisitor 
Melanobracon  simplex 
Pelecinus  polyturator 
Tetrachorocheta  insolens 
Ichneumon  curtator 

15.  Ichneumon  seminiger 
Ichneumon  malacus 
Exetastes  scutellaris 


The  Insect  Book. 


The  Chalcis  Flies 

species  of  the  genus  Copidosoma  are  always  parasitic  within  naked 
caterpillars.  Those  of  the  genus  Bothriothorax  are  always  para- 
sitic in  small  dipterous  larvae.  The  economic  importance  of  the 
group  is  great.  They  are  the  most  effective  parasites  of  many  of 
our  most  injurious  insects.     For  example,  in  a  certain  year  in  the 


Fig.  JO. — Chalcis  ovata; 


f  Aitthor*s  illustration.) 


cotton  fields  of  Northern  Florida  95  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  from 
which  would  have  hatched  the  voracious  cotton  caterpillar  were 
killed  by  the  minute  Chalcididparasite.rr/cAo^/'j/HWj /)rt'//o5a. 


Life  History  of  a  Chalcis  Fly 

( Eiiplcctrus  comstockii,  How.^ 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  full  life  of  the  internal-feeding 
parasites  of  this  group  is  very  difficult  and  practically  impossible 
to  follow  so  long  as  they  are  within  the  body  of  the  host  insect. 
In  our  earlier  consideration  of  the  super-fomily  Proctotrypoidea 
we  have  given  some  general  remarks  upon  the  development  of 
all  internal-feeding  parasitic  Hymenopterous  larvae,  and  those  re- 
marks will  apply  in  general  to  the  Chalcis  flies.  There  are  some 
of  them,  however,  whose  larvae  do  not  feed  internally.  These  are 
especially  those  which  are  parasitic  upon  the  larvae  of  gall-making 
insects.  If  a  gall  be  cut  open,  it  is  quite  likely  that  there  will  be 
found  within  it  the  larva  of  a  Torymus  (one  of  the  Chalcis  flies) 
S7 


The  Chalcis  Flies 


Fig.  32 


Larvae  of  Euplectrus  comstockii, 
on  cotton  caterpillar, 
(Fourth  Report  U.  S.  Ent.  Com.) 


feeding  externally  upon  the  gall  making  larva,  and  there  is  a  quite 
large  group  known  as  the  Elachistinae  which  are  parasitic  upon 
caterpillars,  the  larvae  of  which  feed  also  outside  the  skin  of  the 
host  insect.  It  is  one  of  these  which  has  been  selected  for  our 
typical  life  history.  It  was  studied  in  the  summer  of  1878  in  the 
cotton  fields  of  Alabama  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz,  but  it  has  a  north- 
ward spread  and  is  parasitic  upon  caterpillars  of  certain  Geomet- 
rid  moths — measuring  worms. 

The  adult  parasite,  which  is  a  little  black,  shiny,  four-winged 
fly  and  which,  when  seen  under  a  strong  lens  has  a  number  of 

strong,  dark  colored  bristles 
upon  its  back,  lays  its  eggs 
to  the  number  of  from  three 
to  fifteen  in  a  group  upon 
the  middle  of  the  back  of 
the  wriggling  caterpillar. 
Each  egg  is  brown  in  color, 
almost  black  before  hatching,  is  elongate  oval,  strongly  convex 
above,  and  somewhat  flattened  beneath.  The  individual  eggs 
although  laid  in  a  group  are  sufficiently  separated  from  each 
other  to  allow  for  the  development  of  the  larvae.  They  hatch 
about  two  days  after  being  laid.  The  delicate  egg  shell  splits 
longitudinally  in  the  middle  of  the  back  and  discloses  the  white, 
grub-like  parasite  larva,  which  gradually  works  the  egg  shell  more 
and  more  down  the  sides  of  its  body  where  it  remains  visible  as  a 
black  line  for  some  hours.  As  soon  as  the  grub  has  freed  its  head 
from  the  egg  shell  it  pierces  the  skin  of  the  victim,  and  thereafter 
remains  stationary  with  its  head  buried.  As  soon  as  it  has 
fairly  begun  to  feed,  the  white  color  changes  to  a  bright  bluish 
green,  and  the  spiracles  and  the  con- 
strictions between  the  segments  are 
readily  seen.  The  growth  of  this  larva 
is  extremly  rapid.  In  fact,  we  know 
of  no  insect  larva  which  has  a  more 
rapid  development.  In  midsummer  it 
reached  full  growth  in  three  days  from 
the  time  of  hatching.  In  September 
this  larval  growth  took  four  days.  When  full  grown  the  para- 
sitic grubs  crowd  each  other,  and  if  there  are  five  or  more  of  them 
on  a  caterpillar  they  form  a  semi-globular  lump  of  very  striking 
58 


Fig.  TyTj. — Pupae  of  Euplectrus 

comstockii.     (From  J-ourth 

Report  U.  S.  Ent.  Com.) 


The  Chalcis  Flies 

appearance.  Usually  their  growth  is  uniform.  A  retardation  in 
the  development  of  individuals  in  the  group  results  in  death. 
When  full  grown  they  turn  white  and  relax  their  hold. 

The  poor  caterpillar,  which  up  to  this  time  has  shown  no  signs 
of  being  affected,  except  by  its  sickly  yellowish  color  and  by  its 
very  slow  growth,  collapses  and  dies  as  soon  as  a  single  one  of  the 
parasitic  larvs  withdraws,  and  the  same  fate  overtakes  those 
parasitic  maggots  which  are  at  the  time  less  advanced  in  their 
development.  If  one  of  the  larvae  be  removed  by  hand,  Schwarz 
found,  both  the  victimized  worm  and  the  remaining  parasites 
quickly  dry  up.  After  the  larva  turns  yellowish  white  and  relaxes 
its  hold  on  the  caterpillar,  it  works  its  way  around  underneath  the 


Fig.  34. — Euplectrus  comstockii,  How.     Adult. 
(From  Fourth  Report  U.  S.  Ent.  Com.) 

belly  of  the  host  and  spins  a  series  of  silk  threads  attaching  the 
caterpillar,  which  is  now  a  mere  empty  skin,  to  the  leaf.  Then 
the  parasitic  larvae  take  their  places  side  by  side  across  the  under 
side  of  the  caterpillar  skin,  fasten  it  for  nearly  its  whole  length  to 
the  leaf,  spin  a  little  more  loose  silk  of  yellowish  white  color,  and 
transform  to  pupae.  This  silken  web  does  not  form  a  series  of 
cocoons  since  it  is  so  loose  that  the  black  pupae  can  plainly  be 
seen  between  its  strands.  The  caterpillar  skin  protects  these 
pupae  just  as  a  roof  would  do.  After  first  transforming,  the  pupa  is 
S9 


The  Chalcis  Flies 

dark  yellow,  but  soon  becomes  black,  especially  on  the  head  and 
abdomen.  In  from  three  to  eight  days  the  adult  parasite  emerges. 
Just  think  what  a  speedy  development  this  means ! — two  days 
for  the  egg  stage,  three  days  for  the  larval  stage,  and  three  days 
for  the  pupal  stage — an  entire  generation  in  eight  days.  Even 
the  prolific  and  rapid-breeding  house  fly  cannot  beat  this.  It  is 
altogether  the  shortest  development  of  any  Hymenopterous  para- 
site that  has  been  studied,  and  it  is  due  to  this  great  rapidity  of 
development  of  this  parasite,  together  with  the  abundance  of 
certain  other  parasites,  that  the  famous  cotton  caterpillar  of  the 
South,  an  insect  which  used  to  damage  the  cotton  crop  annually 
to  the  amount  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  is  periodical  in  its  attacks 
and  while  very  abundant  some  years  is  very  scarce  in  other  years. 
During  the  summer  when  Mr.  Schwarz  studied  the  species  in 
Central  Alabama  he  found  that  there  was  an  almost  complete 
destruction  of  the  caterpillars  in  the  early  part  of  October,  and  that 
this  destruction  was  principally  due  to  this  parasite. 


Plate   X. 
ICHNEUMON   FLIES 


Ichneumon  wilsoni 
Cryptus  americaniis 
Lampronota  americana 
Crvptus  extrematis 
Ichneumon  longulum 
Ichneumon  w-album 
Exetastes  fascipennis 
Ephialtes  irrorator 
Cryptus  nuncius 
Ichneumon  unifasciatus 
Ichneumon  flavizonatus 
Ichneumon  divinator 
Exochilum  mundum 
Exochilum  mundum 
Thyreodon  morio 


FIG. 

i6. 
17- 


27. 
28. 
29. 


Ichneumon  coeruleum 
Ophion  bilineatum 
Heteropelma  tlavicornis 
Enicospilus  purgatus 
Ichneumon  viola 
Labena  apicalis 
Ceratosoma  apicalis 
Paniscus  geminatus 
Arotes  amoenus 
Labena  grallator 
Compsocryptus  caliptera: 
Opheltes  glaucopterus 
Anomalon  curtum 
Hoplismenus  morulus 


The  Insect  Boo: 


THE  ICHNEUMON  FLIES 

(Super-family  Ic/uieitmonoidea.) 

Until  quite  recently  this  great  group  comprising  what  are 
popularly  known  as  the  Ichneumon  flies*  was  considered  by 
entomologists  to  form  but  a  single  family — the  Ichneumonidae, 
but  Ashmead  has  justly  decided  that  the  group  is  of  super-family 
rank,  and  in  a  recent  paper  has  carefully  worked  out  the  genera 
of  the  world,  recognizing  no  less  than  1,140  distinct  genera,  very 
many  of  which  inhabit  the  United  States.  The  species  of  the 
ichneumonoidea  are  without  exception  parasitic  upon  other  in- 
sects, and  for  the  most  part  upon  insects  which  are  injurious  to 
vegetation.  Caterpillars  are  especially  subject  to  the  attacks 
of  the  Ichneumon  flies.  In  his  paper  upon  the  Hymenopterous 
parasites  of  North  American  butterflies,  published  as  a  chapter  in 
Mr.  Scudder's  great  work  "The  Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  Canada,"  the  writer  has  described  a  large  number  of 
Ichneumon  flies  which  lay  their  eggs  in  butterfly  larvas,  and 
which  issue  as  adults  either  from  the  caterpillars  or  from  the 
chrysalids.  One  of  the  most  frequent  disappointments  met  with 
by  collectors  of  butterflies  in  trying  to  rear  to  the  adult  condition 
the  larva  of  some  interesting  or  rare  species  is  the  ultimate 
realization  of  the  fact  that  some  Ichneumon  fly  has  laid  her  eggs 
in  the  rare  specimen  before  it  was  captured.  Not  only  do  larvae 
of  butterflies  and  moths  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  members  of 
this  group,  but  also  beetle  and  fly  larvae  and  more  rarely  the 
larvae  of  other  orders.  They  are  on  the  whole  distinctly  bene- 
ficial insects,  and  as  will  be  shown  in  the  detailed  life  history 
which  follows,  they  may  be  responsible  for  the  absolute  saving 
of  great  damage  to  the  shade  trees  of  our  cities  as  well  as  to  agri- 
cultural crops  by  their  widespread  destruction  of  injurious  insects. 

*  Both  the  scientific  and  the  popular  names  of  this  group  were  derived  from 
the  name  of  the  so-called  Egyptian  Ichneumon  or  Pharaoh's  rat,  which  devours 
the  eggs  and  young  of  the  crocodile  and  was  held  sacred  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
The  applicability  of  this  title  to  the  group  under  consideration  is  due  to  the 
parasitic  habits  of  the  Ichneumon  flies. 

61 


Fig.  35. — Thalessa  lunator.     (From  Iiuect  Life.) 
62 


Fig.  36. — Thalessa  lunator.     (From  Insect  Life.) 


Fig.  37. — Polysphincta  dictynae,  a  parasite  of  spiders. 
(Author's  illustration.) 
63 


The  Ichneumon  Flies 

Life  History  of  an  Ichneumon  Fly 

(Pimpla  inquisitor,  Say.^ 

This  important  but  widespread  parasite  of  caterpillars 
occurs  in  California,  Texas,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Ohio,  New 
York,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  District  of 
Columbia,  and  is  probably  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United 


-Pimpla  inquisitor;  a,  b,  c,  larvae  at  left;  e,  male  abdomen. 
(Author's  illustration.) 

States  except  possibly  in  the  very  coldest  portions.  It  is  para- 
sitic upon  a  large  number  of  different  l<inds  of  larvae  of  moths 
feeding  upon  such  concealed  spinners  as  the  tent  caterpillar  of 
the  orchard  and  the  army  worm  of  the  forest  (Clisiocampa 
americana  and  C.  disstria)  and  upon  certain  stalk  borers  and  gall 
makers,  leaf  folders  and  certain  of  the  larger  leaf  miners.  It  is  by 
far  the  most  abundant  of  the  parasites  of  the  white  marked  tus- 
sock moth  (Orgyia  lencostigma),  a  famous  shade  tree  enemy  of 
the  northeastern  United  States.  The  adult  Pimpla  is  shiny  black 
in  color  and  has  a  wing  spread  of,  on  the  average,  three-quarters 
of  an  inch,  the  length  of  its  body  being  about  one-half  an  inch, 
but  it  varies  greatly  in  size,  the  adults  issuing  from  well  fed  larvae 
exceeding  these  measurements  and  under-fed  specimens  trans- 
forming into  much  smaller  adults.  Upon  the  tussock  moth 
caterpillar  and  upon  the  army  worm  of  the  forest  the  female 
Pimpla  will  lay  her  eggs  when  the  larvae  are  full  grown  or  just  after 
64 


The  Ichneumon  Flies 

they  have  spun  their  cocoons,  the  latter  time  being  seemingly 
preferable.  When  either  species  is  abundant  their  newly  spun 
cocoons  are  the  rallying  points  of  large  numbers  of  these  Pimplas. 
One  of  the  females  after  running  about  for  a  few  seconds  will 
suddenly  thrust  its  ovipositor  through  the  cocoon  into  the  body 
of  the  caterpillar  which  will  writhe  with  pain.  The  Pimpla, 
however,  will  remain  apparently  undisturbed  and  push  its  ovi- 
positor in  to  its  full  extent,  remaining  motionless  in  this  position 
for  about  five  minutes  during  which  time  the  abdomen  is  slightly 
moved  in  a  peristaltic  manner  as  if  forcing  the  eggs  out  and  down 
through  the  ovipositor.     She  will  then  turn  round,  take  a  step  or 


C-  OL  li 

Fig.  39. — Pimpla  inquisitor;  b,  c,  eggs;  </,  larvae;  e,  cocoons. 
(Author's  illustration. J 

two,  and  finally  give  the  caterpillar  what  is  apparently  a  coup 
de  grace  with  two  or  three  thrusts  in  quick  succession.  Some- 
times the  same  operation  is  repeated.  The  eggs  are  not  thrust 
into  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  when  the  latter  is  enclosed  in  its 
cocoon  but  sometimes  are  to  be  found  loose  between  the  cocoon 
and  the  caterpillar  and  sometimes  not  firmly  attached  to  the  skin 
of  the  caterpillar  standing  upright  on  end.  The  eggs  are  elon- 
gate, somewhat  wider  at  one  end  than  the  other,  pure  white  in 
color  and  perfectly  smooth  appearing  highly  polished.  The 
average  length  is  one  mm.,  and  the  greatest  width  about  one 
65 


The  Ichneumon  Flies 

and  eight-tenths  mm.  The  duration  of  the  egg  state  must  be 
very  short  and  is  probably  only  a  matter  of  but  a  few  hours. 
After  hatching  the  Pimpla  larvae  when  at  work  upon  a  just  spun 
up  tussock  moth  caterpillar  feed  externally  upon  the  body  of  the 
caterpillar,  the  mouth-parts  closely  applied  to  the  skin  and  in  fact 
obviously  sucking  blood  through  a  minute  orifice.  Their  growth 
is  rapid  and  there  is  no  perceptible  casting  of  the  skin.  In  mid- 
summer the  larvae  will  become  full  grown  in  four  days,  when  they 
are  nearly  ten  mm.  long,  by  three  mm.  in  greatest  diameter,  fusi- 
form in  shape,  and  slightly  curved.  The  color  is  yellowish  white. 
They  soon  begin  spinning  cocoons.  These  cocoons,  at  first  white 
and  afterward  turning  gradually  to  a  pale  yellow  brown,  becoming 
much  the  same  color  as  the  cocoon  of  the  tussock  moth,  are 
denser  in  structure  and  are  composed  of  a  considerably  finer 
quality  of  silk.  They  are  long  oval  in  shape  and  are  closely 
applied  together  adhering  so  firmly  that  it  takes  some  little  force 
to  separate  them.  They  are  applied  side  by  side  and  so  closely 
that  their  oval  outline  becomes  more  or  less  angular  at  the  point 
of  application.  Two  days  after  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon  in 
midsummer  the  larva  changes  to  pupa  and  adults  issue  some- 
times as  early  as  six  days  later,  making  the  entire  life  round  of  the 
species  about  fifteen  days. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  tussock  moth  caterpillar  is  stung 
when  it  is  just  on  the  point  of  transforming,  but  in  such  a  case  the 
transformation  to  pupa  is  occasionally  accomplished.  The  re- 
cently formed  pupa  is  also  occasionally  stung.  Contrary  to  the 
general  rule  holding  when  caterpillars  are  eaten  out  by  the  Pimpla 
larvae  the  latter  seem  to  feed  within  such  pupae  and  evidently  to 
spin  their  cocoons  within  the  caterpillar's  pupa  skin  so  that  one 
will  frequently  find  an  apparently  perfect  pupa  of  the  tussock 
moth  within  its  cocoon  which,  however,  contains  four  or  five 
cocoons  of  the  Pimpla  packed  close  together  and  completely 
filling  it. 

The  number  of  Pimpla  larvae  nourished  by  a  single  tussock 
moth  caterpillar  varies  from  one  to  ten,  with  perhaps  an  average 
of  three  or  four.  This  is  the  case  in  the  summer  time,  but  in 
the  autumn  more  are  found.  Ten  or  fifteen  in  a  single  cocoon 
are  not  unusual  at  this  time  of  the  year,  while  in  one  case  the 
writer  has  seen  twenty-three  male  Pimpla  cocoons  in  a  single 
cocoon  of  the  tussock  moth.  This  particular  cocoon  mass  was 
66 


The  Ichneumon  Flies 


cross-sectioned  and  is  shown  at  c  in  the  accompanying  figure. 
When  fall  comes  and  the  feeding  and  breeding  season  is  past,  all 
living  individuals  of  this  particular  parasite  will  he  found  snugly 
packed  away  in  the  larval  state  within  the  bodies  of  some  host 
insect  and  the  winter  is  passed  by  them  mainly  in  the  larval  con- 
dition in  their  cocoons.  With  the  approach  of  spring,  however, 
they  transform  to  pupae  and  about  the  time  when  the  young 
host  caterpillars  begin  to  hatch  from  their  eggs  the  adult  para- 
sites emerge  ready  for  the  summer's  campaign. 

In  this  act  of  emerging  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that  as  with 
many  other  parasitic  Hymenoptera  and  in  fact  with  many  other 
insects  the  males  as  a  rule  issue  before  the  females  and  wait  with 
impatience  for  the  companionship  of  the  fair  sex.  From  one  lot 
of  cocoons  studied  by  the  writer  in  the  spring  of  1896,  forty-nine 
males  issued  between  March  3d 
and  nth  before  a  single  female 
put  in  an  appearance.  On  March 
13th  and  14th  a  single  female 
issued  each  day;  on  the  17th 
eight  more;  on  the  i8th  three 
more ;  on  the  19th  fourteen  more, 
and  on  the  20th  twenty  more. 
In  the  meantime  the  number  of 
males  issuing  had  rapidly  fallen  ^'S- 4°■7Co^°°f^o/ P^pi^  ^"q'^isitor. 

°  '^       -'  ( Author  s  tllustration. J 

off  and  they  eventually   ceased 

to  make  their  appearance.     The  number  of  members   of  both 

sexes  was  approximately  equal. 

A  curious  fact  may  be  noticed  concerning  the  cocoons  from 
which  these  early  spring  individuals  issued,  that  is  to  say,  the 
over-wintering  cocoons.  We  have  seen  that  an  entire  generation 
may  be  produced  in  a  space  of  fifteen  days  in  midsummer,  but, 
of  course,  in  colder  weather  the  development  is  slow  and  the  time 
may  be  much  extended.  Again,  in  the  absence  of  proper  host  in- 
sects the  females  may  live  for  several  weeks  without  having  oppor- 
tunity to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  midsummer  cocoons  are  rather 
fluffy  and  although  more  closely  spun  than  are  the  cocoons  of  the 
tussock  moth  caterpillar,  they  are  still  rather  loose  and  the  outer 
silk  in  particular  is  loosely  spun.  With  the  over-wintering  co- 
coons, however,  it  is  at  once  noticed  that  they  are  of  a  closer, 
tougher  and  more  parchment-like  consistency.  There  is  less  of 
67 


The  Ichneumon  Flies 

the  loosely  spun  silk  with  the  individual  although  more  of  this 
loose  silk  surrounding  the  whole  mass  in  any  given  host  cocoon. 
Thus  it  seems  as  though  the  parasitic  larvce  in  preparing  for  the 
winter  appreciated  the  degree  of  cold  which  they  would  have  to 
experience  and  wisely  prepared  for  it  by  making  their  habitations 
thicker  and  tighter  against  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather. 

As  abundant  and  hardy  as  this  species  seems  to  be  it  does 
not  escape  the  attacks  of  enemies  of  its  own.  Certain  soldier- 
bugs  have  been  seen  to  capture  the  adult  females  of  the  Pimpla 
when  they  were  engaged  so  assiduously  in  egg-laying  that  they 
were  blind  to  their  surroundings.  This  is  not  surprising  since 
one  can  approach  them  during  this  process  so  closely  as  to  be 
able  to  study  them  well  with  a  small  hand  lens.  Then,  too, 
secondary  parasites  have  been  reared  from  their  cocoons,  that  is 
to  say,  internal  parasites  of  their  own,  and  still  more  strange  to 
relate,  Hymenopterous  parasites  of  these  secondary  or  hyper- 
parasites  have  also  been  reared  from  the  Pimpla  cocoons.  An 
extraordinary  chain  of  links  in  the  development  of  species  is  thus 
brought  about  and  may  be  studied  by  any  one  during  almost  any 
summer  in  one  of  our  northeastern  cities.  When  the  tussock 
moth  caterpillars  appear  in  great  numbers  on  our  shade  trees  dur- 
ing a  given  season,  it  will  almost  invariably  be  found  that  this 
Pimpla  is  present  also  in  great  numbers  and  that  the  majority  of 
the  caterpillars  are  stung  by  it.  This  means  that  the  following 
season  there  will  be  an  unusual  number  of  adults  of  the  parasitic 
insect  which  is  now  termed  the  primary  parasite.  So  great  is 
this  abundance  that  the  first  generation  of  tussock  moth  caterpil- 
lars is  practically  wiped  out  of  existence.  Then  comes  the  second 
curious  fact,  that  the  secondary  parasites  become  enormously 
abundant  and  kill  off  the  abundant  Pimplas.  At  the  end  of  the 
same  season  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  the  tertiary  parasites 
put  in  their  appearance  and  the  secondary  parasites  are  destroyed, 
thus  giving  relief  again  to  the  primary  parasites  which  once  more 
begin  to  be  abundant  and  ready  for  the  next  case  of  super-abund- 
ance of  the  host  caterpillar.  This  little  chain  of  species  depending 
upon  species  offers  one  of  the  easiest  and  most  interesting  series 
of  observations  which  may  be  made  by  any  school  class  in  the 
part  of  the  country  indicated. 


guliuufi: 


Plate  XI, 

WASPS 

FIG. 

FIG. 

I. 

Chalybion  texanum 

15- 

2. 

Notocyphus  texanus 

16. 

3- 

Sphex  texanus 

'T- 

A- 

Ceropales  nigripes 

IS. 

5- 

Palinodes  rufiventris 

19. 

6. 

Sphex  tenanus 

20. 

7- 

Priononyx  brunnipes 

21. 

8. 

Sphex  flavipes 

22. 

9- 

Priononyx  ferrugineus 

23. 

lO. 

Sphex  belfragei 

24. 

II. 

Priocnemis  unifasciatus 

25. 

12. 

Pepsis  coerulea 

26. 

13- 

Ceropales  elegans 

27. 

14. 

Entypus  marginatus 

Pepsis  marginatus 
Pseudagenia  bombycina' 
Sericopompilus  cinctipes 
Poecilopompilus  navus 
Pedinaspis  tevifrons 
Hemipogonius  heiligbrodtii' 
Parapompilus  contiguus 
Priocnemis  fulvicornis 
Priononyx  bifoveolatus 
Batozonus  algidus 
Priocnemis  terminatus 
Salius  texanus 
Ammophila  robusta 


The  Insect  Book. 


THE  HORN-TAILS 

(Super-family  Siricoidca.) 

These  insects  form  an  old  series  of  Hymenoptera,  known  as 
the  wood-eaters — Xylophaga.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
true  saw-flies  by  the  fact  that  the  foreshanks  have  only  one  spur 
at  the  tip  instead  of  two.  They  have  the  same  broad  abdomen 
and  broad  head  and  thorax. 

The  group  includes  the  families  Oryssidae,  Siricids,  Xiphy- 
driidae  and  Cephidae.  The  larvae  of  all  of  these  insects  are  wood- 
borers,  living  in  the  stems  of  plants,  and  even  in  the  trunks  of 
trees.  The  adult  flies  are  called  horn-tails,  because  the  end  of 
the  body  usually  bears  a  spine  or  horn.  The  ovipositor  is  fitted 
for  boring  instead  of  sawing,  and  with  it  the  female  bores  into 
woody  tissue  and  lays  her  eggs.  The  group  is  not  a  very  large 
or  a  very  important  one,  although  it  contains  many  common 
species.  A  noted  example  is  the  European  Cephus  pygmceus, 
which  bores  into  the  stems  of  wheat.  This  species  was  acci- 
dentally introduced  into  this  country  some  years  ago,  and  is  now 
found  in  portions  of  Canada  and  New  York  State.  Its  damage, 
however,  has  not  attracted  the  attention  of  farmers  of  late.  The 
large  pigeon  Tremex  (Tremex  columba)  is  a  not  uncommon 
enemy  to  shade  trees  in  certain  of  the  northern  states.  It  attacks 
the  elm,  oak,  sycamore,  and  several  varieties  of  maple.  The 
holes  of  this  borer  may  be  recognized  by  their  regular,  evenly-cut 
shape,  about  the  diameter  of  a  lead  pencil.  Isolated  shade  trees 
along  roads  and  in  streets  are  favorite  habitats.  The  writer,  as  a 
boy,  saw  them  in  great  numbers  in  the  maple  trees  on  the 
grounds  of  the  old  Ithaca  Academy,  at  Ithaca,  New  York.  In 
midsummer  a  large  number  of  females  would  be  seen  boring 
into  the  trunk  of  a  single  tree,  laying  their  eggs.  The  female 
plunges  her  borer  perpendicularly  into  the  trunks,  holding  it  at 
right  angles  to  the  abdomen.  The  insertion  requires  evidently 
great  muscular  effort,  and  the  egg  is  deposited  at  the  bottom. 
69 


The  Horn-Tails 


c  b        m^a 

Fig.  41. — Tremex  columba.     (From  Insect  Life) 

It  was  a  common  sight  to  see  females  which,  after  laying,  had 
been  unable  to  withdraw  the  ovipositor,  so  that  they  had  been 
held  to  the  trunk  until  they  died. 
The  eggs  are  oblong-oval  and 
pointed  at  each  end. 

The  common  parasites  of  the 
larvae  of  these  horn-tails  are  the 
very  large  and  extremely  long- 
tailed  Ichneumon  flies  known  as 
Thalessa  lunator  and  Thalessa 
atraia.  These  Ichneumon  flies 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  burrows  of 
the  Tremex,  and  their  larvae  feed 
upon  Tremex  larvae. 

The  exact  facts  concerning 
the  life  of  the  Tremex  larvae  in 
trunk  of  the  tree  have  not  been 
studied,  and  the  species  is  such 
a  common  one  that  it  will  be 
70 


Fig.  42. — Cephus  pygmiEus. 
(After  Curtis.) 


The  Horn-Tails 

an  interesting  matter  for  some  observer  to  work  out  the  life 
history  in  detail. 


Life  History  of  a  Horn-Tail 

{Phyllaxiis  integer,  Norton.) 

This  insect,  which  is  l<nown  as  the  willow-shoot  horn-tail, 
is  found  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
female,  after  boring  a  hole  some  inches  below  the  tip  of  a  willow 
twig,  pushes  her  ovipositor  in  an  oblique  direction  into  the  pith 
of  the  twig,  inserting  the  eggs  at  the  bottom  of  the  puncture. 


^^^g^m^asmm^^ 

d 

^^i;^^^^^^ 

mm^s^ss^ 

Fig.  43. — Phylloecus  integer.     ( Frain  Insect  Life.) 

She  then  girdles  the  twig  below  the  eggs  to  prevent  it  from 
growing  any  farther,  obviously  to  prevent  the  egg  from  being 
crushed  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  plant.  After  a  week  the 
eggs  hatch,  the  young  larvae  bore  their  way  down  through  the 
pith  to  a  distance  sometimes  more  than  two  feet,  filling  the 
channel  behind  them  with  their  excrement  as  they  proceed. 
The  eggs  having  been  laid  in  the  spring,  the  larvae  feed  all 
through  the  summer  and  become  full-grown  in  late  fall,  filling 
71 


The  Horn-Tails 

the  lower  end  of  the  burrow  for  half  an  inch  with  frass.  They 
then  eat  a  passage  through  the  side  of  the  twig  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  above  the  prospective  cocoon,  but  without  cutting 
through  the  bark.  Then  the  cocoon  is  spun  in  the  burrow  and 
the  larva  remains  within  it  all  through  the  winter,  changing  to 
pupa  early  in  the  spring. 

In  young  willow  groves,  the  shoots  of  which  are  intended 
for  basket-making,  the  withered  tips  should  be  pruned  off  as  soon 
as  noticed  in  the  spring. 


THE  SA IV- FLIES 

(Super-family   Tcntlircdiiwidca.) 

The  saw-flies  derive  their  name  from  the  fact  that  the  ovi- 
positor of  the  female  is  peculiarly  constructed,  so  as  to  act  like  a 
saw.  There  are  two  saws  set  side  by  side  in  a  groove  under- 
neath the  body  and  can  be  shoved  out  and  moved  up  and  down. 
They  are  used  to  make  the  proper  aperture  in  leaves  or  other 
vegetable  tissues  in  which  the  eggs  are  placed.  The  head  and 
thorax  are  wide  and  the  base  of  the  abdomen  is  not  slender. 
The  front  shanks  bear  two  spurs. 

The  eggs  are,  as  just  indicated,  laid  in  plant  tissues,  in 
apertures  made  by  the  female  saws. 

The  larvae  as  a  rule  are  remarkable  from  their  resemblance 
to  caterpillars.  Some  of  them  look  so  much  like  cutworms  that 
one  might  almost  expect  to  breed  moths  from  them  instead  of 
flies.  They  have,  however,  from  twelve  to  sixteen  prolegs,  in- 
stead often,  which  is  the  usual  rule  with  the  caterpillar.  Many 
of  them  also  have  the  habit  of  curling  the  body  around  so  as  to 
embrace  the  twig  upon  which  they  may  be  walking.  Many  of 
them  feed  exposed  upon  the  leaves  of  plants  in  much  the  same 
way  as  do  caterpillars.  Others,  however,  are  covered  with  slime 
and  look  more  like  slugs  than  like  insect  larva,  while  still  others 
are  covered  with  a  white,  waxy  excretion  which  completely 
disguises  them. 

There  are  a  few  leaf-miners  in  this  group,  while  in  the  family 
Nematidse  are  many  gall-makers.  A  few  make  cases  in  which 
they  live.  Nearly  all  descend  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  to 
transform  to  pupae,  and  spin  silken  cocoons  about  themselves. 

This  super-family  is  particularly  well  represented  in  the 
United  States,  and  its  species  in  fact  seem  to  be  more  abundant 
in  temperate  and  cold  regions  than  in  the  tropics.  About  two 
thousand  species  have  been  described. 

73 


The  Saw-Flies 


Many  saw-flies  are  so  injurious  to  vegetation  as  to  possess 
much  economic  importance;  the  larch  S2iw-{\y  (Nemaitis  erich- 
sonii),  in  certain  years,  has  destroyed  large  sections  of  larch 
forests    in    northern   New    England  through   the   work  of   its 


Fig.  44. — Cimbex  americana.     (After  Riley.) 


larvae;  the  imported  currant  worm  (Nemalus  ribesii)  is  a  famous 
enemy  of  currants  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States;  the  com- 
mon rose  slug  ( Monoslegia  roswj,  next  to  the  so-called  green 
flies  and  the  rose  chafer,  is  the  most  abundant  enemy  to  rose 

74 


The  Saw-Flies 


bushes  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  while  the  large 
and  handsome  Cimbex 
americana,  known  as  the 
American  saw-fly,  is  fre- 
quently found  upon  elms, 
willows  and  birches  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  al- 
most entirely  defoliate 
them.  The  yellow-spotted 
willow  slug  (Neviatiis  veii- 
tralis.  Say)  is  a  common 
enemy  to  willows  in  the 
United  States. 

The  life  histories  of  all 
of  the  species  just  men- 
tioned are  well  known,  but 
there  are  very  many  forms 
which  need  careful  study. 


Fig.  45.— Nematus  similaris.  (After  Comstock.) 


Fig.    46. — Nematus  marylandicuS=Pachynematus 
extensicoUis.     (After  Marlatt.) 
75 


The  Saw-Flies 

Several  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Pontania  which  make  the 
curious  galls  on  willow  leaves  are  convenient  forms  for  study, 
and  the  full  and  careful  life  history  of  any  one  of  them  would  be 
a  valuable  contribution  to  science. 

The  super-family  Tenthredinoidea  was  formerly  considered  a 
family — the  Tenthredinidse — but  it  has  been  justifiably  separated 
by  Mr.  Ashmead  into  eleven  distinct  families. 


Life  History  of  the  "Pear  Slug" 

{Eriocampoides  limacina,  Retzius.) 

This  insect,  the  larva  of  which  is  commonly  known  as  the 
pear  slug,  belongs  to  the  group  which  has  the  slimy  caterpillars 

referred  to  above.  In 
foct,  its  scientific  name, 
limacina,  indicates  this 
fact,  since  Limax  is  aslug. 
This  slimy,  dark  olive- 
green,  slug-like  creature 
occurs  commonly  upon 
the  leaves  of  pear,  cherry, 
plum  and  allied  fruit  trees 
during  most  of  the  sum- 
mer. Frequently  it  occurs 
in  such  extraordinary 
numbers  with  the  later 
broods  that  the  leaves  of 
the  tree  turn  brown,  die 
and  fall  to  the  ground  in 
midsummer.  Sometimes 
when  the  slugs  are  very 
abundant,  the  sound  of  the  eating  of  myriads  of  mouths  resem- 
bles the  falling  of  a  fine  rain  upon  the  leaves.  There  are  some- 
times thirty  or  more  feeding  upon  a  single  leaf. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  small  glossy  black,  four-winged   fly, 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  April  and  May.      The  ovipositor  of  the 
female  is  thrust  obliquely  through  the  skin  of  the  leaf  from  below, 
not  reaching  through  the  upper  surface,  however.      The   saw 
76 


Fig.  47. — Pear  Slug:  a,  adult  saw-fly,  female; 
b,  larva  with  slime  removed;  c,  same  in  nor- 
mal state ;  d,  leaves  with  larv  ae  natural  size ; 
a,  b,  c,  much  enlarged.  (After  Marlatt.) 


Plate   XII. 
SAW-FLIES  AND   HORN  TAILS 


1.  Cimbex  americ:ina 

2.  Lophyriis  prattii 

3.  Lophyrus  abbotti 

4.  Cimbex  americana 

5-  Trichiosoma  triangulum 

6.  Bactrocerus  pallimacula 

7.  Harpiphorus  fascicula 

8.  Zaraea  inflata 

9.  Pteronus  ventralis 

10.  Dolerusarvensis 

11.  Strongylogaster  apicalis 

12.  Schizocerus  zabriskei 

13.  Monophadnus  bardus  3 
[4.  Pteronus  ribesii 


FIG. 

'5- 
16. 

■7- 
18. 
19. 
20. 


24. 
2=,. 

26. 
27. 


Monophadnus  bardus  1 
Nematus  erichsonii 
Dolerus  aprilis 
Lyda  luteicornis 
Cladius  isomera 
Hylotoma  scapularis 
Panrurus  pinicola 
Janus  integer 
Tremex  columba  $ 
Urocerus  aibicornis 
Xypiiidria  aibicornis 
Oryssus  terminalis 
Tremex  columba  $ 


The  Insect  Book. 


The  Saw- Flies 


of  the  female  is  moved  rapidly  with  a  swinging  lateral  motion 
from  side  to  side,  forming  an  irregular  cell  or  pocket  of  an  oval 
outline.  The  egg  is  quickly  passed  down  between  the  plates  of 
the  ovipositor,  and  dropped  into  the 
pocket  thus  made,  the  time  occupy- 
ing little  more  than  a  minute  for  the 
operation.  A  single  saw-tly  usually 
deposits  only  one  egg  in  the  same  leaf, 
and  after  laying  the  egg  she  goes  around 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  and  ex- 
amines it  carefully,  rests  awhile,  and 
then  flies  to  another  leaf  and  repeats 
the  operation.  The  egg  is  oval,  slightly 
flattened  on  one  side,  and  remains  in  the 
leaf  about  two  weeks.  It  increases  in 
size  apparently  by  absorbing  the  plant 
juices. 

The  young  larva  on  hatching  makes 
a  semi-circular  cut  through  the  upper  surfoce  and  crawls  on  the 
top  of  the  leaf.     At  first  it  is  nearly  white  in  color,  with  a  yellow- 
ish brown  head.    Almost 
immediately     a     slimy,         -;;" 
olive-colored  liquid  be- 
gins to  exude  over  the 
whole  body ;  the   head 
appears  black  under  the 
slime,  and  the  body  be- 
comes  dark.      The  an- 
terior segments   of   the 
thorax  swell  out  and  the 
head  is  retracted,  so  that 
the    little   larva  appears 


Fig.  48. — Pear  Slug:  a,  last 
moulted  larval  skin;  b,  lari'a 
after  casting  last  skin — 
somewhat   enlarged. 

(After  Marhitt.) 


^' 


..^ 


club-shaped.        It   begins     Fig.  49.— Pear  bluy,  illusUatiuK  "'^''•"J"'ovi- 
feedino-     on     the      unner         position  and  emergence  of  larva,  a,  cutting 
leeaing     on     me      upper  of  cell  beneath  epidermis,  mth  ovipositor; 

surface  of  the  leaf,  eating  b,  same  after  egg  has  beeen  deposited; 

out   small    holes    the  size  ■.,  same  after  escape  of  larva-enlarged. 

(After  JMarlatt.) 

ofapinhead.    This  work 

continues  and  increases  as  the  larva  grows  until  the  leaf  becomes 

entirely  skeletonized.     Full  size  is  reached  in  less  than  a  month. 

The  larva  casts  its  skin  four  times,  and  usually  eats  its  cast  skin 

77 


The  Saw-Flies 


for  its  first  meal  after  each  molt.  When  full  grown  it  molts  a 
fifth  time,  leaving  its  cast  skin  as  a  slender  line  of  slime  attached 
to  the  leaf.  It  now  appears  as  a  light  orange-yellow  worm, 
perfectly  clean  and  dry,  with  no  slime.  It  then  crawls  down  the 
plant  to  the  ground,  penetrating  for  half  an  inch  or  more  and 
forming  a  little  ceil  the  sides  of 
which  it  moistens  with  saliva,  thus 
forming  a  kind  of  cocoon  of  firm  tex- 
I  ture,  more  or  less  impervious  to  water. 
Near  Washington  the  first  gen- 
eration of  larvae  leaves  the  trees  by 
the  end  of  June,  and  a  second  genera- 
Fig.  so.-Pear  Slug: «,  cocoon;  ^JQ^  begins  to  appear  soon  after;  but 

b,  contracted  larva;  c,  pupa —  °  ^  r  < 

all  enlarged.  {After  Mariatt.)  \x\  New  York  State  many  of  the  in- 
dividuals of  the  first  generation  pass 
the  winter  in  their  cocoons.     The  insect  hibernates  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  flies  appear  the  following  April 
or  May. 

No  insect  is  easier  to  destroy  than  the  pear  slug.  All  of  the 
insecticide  mixtures  kill  it  readily,  and  even  throwing  dust  over 
the  leaves  will  destroy  it. 


THE    TRUE    FLIES 

(Order  Dipicra.) 

All  the  true  flies,  that  is,  those  insects  which  are  called  flies 
and  have  but  two  wings,  belong  to  the  order  Diptera.  They  are 
the  only  insects  which  possess  but  two  wings,  with  the  exception 
of  the  males  of  the  scale  insects,  and  a  very  few  May  flies  (genera 
Claeon  and  Cceiiis).  Some  insects  in  other  orders  have  one 
pair  of  wings  so  greatly  aborted  that  they  appear  two-winged  as 
in  the  genus  Psectra,  one  of  the  Lacewing  flies.  The  wings  are 
membranous  and  usually  transparent  and  bear  no  scales,  except 
in  the  mosquito  family.  The  hind  wings  are  represented  only  by 
two  knobbed  projections  called  halteres,  or  poisers.  The  meta- 
morphosis is  very  complete,  the  larvae  being  always  footless  and 
usually  apparently  headless  maggots  and  the  pupae  either  some- 
what resembling  those  of  butterflies  and  moths,  with  compara- 
tively free  legs  and  wings,  or  they  are  enclosed  in  the  larval  skin. 
Their  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  true  flies  com- 
prise an  enormous  number  of  species.  The  most  numerous  of 
all  of  the  orders  of  insects  are  the  Coleoptera,  or  beetles,  the  Hy- 
menoptera,  which  we  have  just  discussed,  and  the  Diptera,  and 
for  superiority  in  point  of  numbers  the  precedence  must  probably 
be  given  to  the  Diptera.  About  forty  thousand  species  are  known 
and  it  is  estimated  that  the  number  yet  to  be  described  will  bring  this 
number  fully  up  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  against  three 
hundred  thousand  which  we  have  estimated  for  the  Hymenoptera. 
Not  only  have  the  true  flies  a  superiority  in  point  of  numbers,  but 
entomologists  are  concluding  that  they  probably  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  insect  system  in  point  of  evolution,  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  the  most  highly  specialized  of  insects.  While  they  do  not  pos- 
sess the  apparent  specialization  in  the  way  of  intelligence  and  in 
other  respects  seen  with  the  bees,  wasps  and  ants,  the  very  com- 
pleteness of  their  transformations  and  the  highly  specialized  or- 
ganization of  the  adults  of  several  families  support  this  view. 

79 


The  True  Flies 

The  order  is  not  a  popular  one  among  entomologists  and 
collectors.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  observations  upon  their 
life  history  are  by  no  means  as  interesting  as  some  of  those  which 
we  mentioned  in  the  preceding  order,  they  have  none  of  the 
beauty  which  attracts  students  and  collectors  to  butterflies  and 
moths  and  they  have  not  the  definiteness  of  structure  character- 
istic of  the  beetles  and  they  are  much  more  difficult  to  preserve 
in  collections  in  perfect  condition.  The  hard-bodied,  easily  col- 
lected, and  readily  pinned  beetles  seem  much  more  attractive. 
But  the  Diptera  in  many  respects  possess  a  peculiar  interest  and 
their  study  is  of  enormous  importance  from  many  points  of  view. 
Even  in  point  of  beauty,  many  of  the  families  possess  species  of 
striking  color  and  graceful  shape;  and,  everywhere  abundant  as 
they  are,  they  are  easy  objects  to  collect.  It  is  true  that  with  some 
of  the  delicate  species,  especially  the  mosquitoes  and  crane  flies,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  preserve  specimens  in  good  condition. 
Still,  with  many  of  the  groups  they  keep  well  when  simply 
killed  and  pinned  and  preserve  their  colors  much  better  than  do 
the  dragon  flies,  for  example. 

Very  many  species,  and  in  fact  entire  groups,  are  harmful 
to  man  through  damage  to  growing  crops  and  to  livestock. 
One  of  the  most  famous  crop  enemies  in  the  world,  the  so-called 
Hessian  fly,  is  a  dipterous  in?ect,  and  most  of  the  insect  parasites 
of  livestock  belong  to  this  order.  As  late  as  1 884,  Dr.  S.  W.  Willis- 
ton,  then  of  Yale  University,  an  authority  upon  this  order,  wrote: 
"  As  a  whole,  the  order  is  a  beneficial  one  to  the  human  economy. 
While  we  may  resent  the  troublesome  mosquito's  and  the  im- 
pertinent hou§e-fly's  molestations,  and  while  the  black  fly  and 
the  horse-fly  may  cause  the  death  of  many  horses  and  cattle,  yet 
the  larger  number  are  purely  parasitic  in  their  habits,  either  in 
the  larval  or  adult  states,  upon  other  and  usually  injurious  in- 
sects. Many  others,  too,  act  as  beneficial  scavengers  of  unwhole- 
some matters,  which  would  otherwise  often  bring  disease  and 
death."  Since  Williston  wrote  these  lines,  a  whole  class  of  bane- 
ful work  accomplished  by  flies  has  been  discovered.  That  is 
their  agency  in  the  spread  of  disease. 

As  early  as  1864,  Leidy  attributed  the  spread  of  gangrene  in 
hospitals  during  the  Civil  war  to  the  agency  of  the  house-fly,  and 
the  terrible  disease  known  as  malignant  pustule  was  afterward 
discovered  to  be  caused  by  the  bite  of  one  of  the  gad-flies  which 


The  True  Flies 

carried  the  bacillus  of  anthrax  from  diseased  cattle  and  by  its  bite 
inserted  it  into  the  circulatory  system  of  human  beings.  The  car- 
riage of  the  purulent  ophthalmia  of  the  Egyptians  by  the  house-fly 
was  later  demonstrated,  and  the  spread  of  the  disease  known  as 
"pink-eye"  in  the  South  has  been  shown  by  Hubbard  to  be  facili- 
tated by  little  midges  of  the  genus  Hippelates.  An  English  army 
surgeon  has  ascertained  that  the  tsetse-fly  of  Africa  carries  patho- 
genic germs  from  diseased  cattle  and  by  its  bite  transfers  them 
to  the  blood  of  healthy  cattle,  and  late  investigations  have  shown 
that  certain  flies,  and  especially  the  common  house-fly,  are  re- 
sponsible not  only  for  the  spread  of  Asiatic  cholera  but  of  the 
everywhere  prevalent  and  dreaded  disease  known  as  typhoid 
fever.  A  vital  stimulus  to  this  line  of  investigation  has  been 
given  by  the  discovery  that  certain  mosquitoes  are  responsible  for 
the  spread  of  malarial  fevers  and  a  very  great  interest  has  been  ex- 
cited and  an  enormous  literature  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  few 
years  concerning  this  line  of  investigation.  This  interest  has  be- 
come even  more  intensified  by  the  experimental  proof  obtained  by 
the  United  States  Army  Yellow  Fever  Commission  of  the  agency 
of  certain  mosquitoes  in  the  spread  of  yellow  fever.  The  whole 
subject  of  the  agency  of  insects  in  the  transmission  of  disease  is 
one  of  the  most  prominent  subjects  of  medical  investigation  at  the 
present  time  and  nearly  all  of  the  insects  concerned  in  this  work 
belong  to  this  order  Diptera;  so  that,  in  spite  of  the  benefits  to 
humanity  which  the  parasitic  species  bring  by  their  destruction  of 
injurious  insects  and  in  spite  of  the  beneficial  function  which  many 
Diptera  exercise  as  scavengers,  this  incident  of  the  lives  of  many 
of  them,  added  to  the  ravages  of  many  more  on  crops  and  domestic 
animals,  makes  the  order  a  distinctly  and  markedly  injurious  one. 
Many  strange  features  in  life  history  occur  with  the  flies. 
With  some  no  eggs  are  laid  and  living  larvae  issue  from  the  bodv 
of  the  female.  Such  flies  then  become  practically  viviparous,  or 
"larviparous."  With  others,  although  these  are  few  in  number, 
the  development  within  the  body  of  the  female  goes  even  farther 
and  when  the  insect  emerges  from  the  body  of  its  mother  it  is 
already  in  the  pupal  condition.  Such  forms  are  called  "  pupi- 
parous."  We  have  mentioned  the  wings  of  the  Diptera,  but  in 
some  forms  there  are  no  wings.  Such  species,  and  they  are  also 
few  in  number,  are  usually  parasites,  and  the  loss  of  wings  is  one 
of  the  degradational  features  consequent  upon  the  parasitic  life. 

Si 


The  True  Flies 

See  the  bedbug  among  the  Heteroptera,  the  true  lice  (Anoplura) 
and  the  bird  lice  (Mallophaga).  With  those  species  which  lay  eggs 
the  larval  development  is  usually  rapid;  and  with  some  forms, 
particularly  those  which  are  true  scavengers  and  feeders  upon 
carrion  or  upon  excrement,  it  becomes  very  rapid.  The  possi- 
bilities for  enormous  multiplication  are  apparently  greater  in  this 
order  than  in  any  other  group  of  insects.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
progeny  of  a  single  house-fly,  if  undisturbed,  would  in  the  course 
of  a  single  summer  reach  high  into  the  billions  in  numbers,  while 
an  almost  equally  rapid  multiplication  takes  place  with  some  of 
the  mosquitoes. 

There  is  great  variation  in  habits  in  the  group.  Most  flies 
prefer  the  sunshine  and  are  most  numerous  in  the  middle  of  sunny 
days.  A  few,  however,  such  as  the  mosquitoes,  fly  at  night. 
These,  however,  are  the  great  exception.  Very  many  flies 
frequent  flowers,  and  thus  exercise  a  beneficial  function  in  the 
cross-fertilization  of  plants.  Many  species — comprising,  in  fact, 
whole  families — are  aquatic  or  sub-aquatic  in  their  early  stages, 
and  some  possess  the  faculty  of  living  under  what  appear  to  be 
most  disadvantageous  conditions.  Some  of  the  flies  of  the 
peculiar  family  Ephydridae,  for  example,  live  in  the  strongly 
alkaline  lakes  of  the  far  West  where  almost  nothing  else  can  live. 

It  is  surprising  how  little  of  an  intimate  and  exact  nature  is 
known  concerning  the  life  history  of  most  flies.  It  is  true  that 
maggots  are  not  attractive  creatures,  but  the  mode  of  life  is  so 
variable  in  the  different  groups  of  flies  and  the  transformations  are 
so  remarkable  that  a  very  great  interest  attaches  to  many  of  these 
life  histories.  Unfortunately,  however,  very  few  observers  have 
done  any  work  in  this  direction  and  it  results  that  there  is  room 
for  an  army  of  workers  who  will  find  it  especially  easy  in  this 
order  to  add  to  scientific  knowledge.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the 
consideration  which  follows  of  the  different  families  that  full  ob- 
servations have  not  yet  been  recorded  in  many  of  them  from 
which  typical  life  histories  can  be  drawn  up.  This  is  a  sad  state 
of  affairs  and  it  is  one  which  observers  of  nature  should  endeavor 
to  remedy.  As  an  example,  it  was  not  until  189s  that  a  full  ac- 
count was  published  of  a  single  one  of  our  common  North  Ameri- 
can mosquitoes  and  even  so  ubiquitous  an  insect  as  the  house-fly 
was  neglected  in  this  country  until  a  comparatively  recent  date. 
It  is  a  strange  fact,  although  not  impossible  to  explain,  that  our  com- 
82 


The  True  Flies 

monest  forms  are  neglected  by  students.  One  not  only  does  not 
find  them  in  collections,  but  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  find  what 
is  known  about  their  lives  it  often  results  that  no  information  can 
be  gained  from  books.  The  reason  for  this  in  part  is  that  every- 
one thinks  that  everything  must  be  known  about  these  common 
'things. 

The  classification  of  the  Diptera  is  complicated.  The  order 
has  been  split  up  into  many  families  and  the  determination  of 
species  and  genera  in  many  of  these  families  is  exceptionally  dif- 
ficult. For  the  following  table  of  the  families  and  higher  groups 
the  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett,  and  it  is  taken  in 
part  from  the  advance  sheets  of  a  paper  about  to  be  published  by 
the  U.  S.  National  Museum. 


TABLE  OF  THE   HIGHER   GROUPS 

Antenni^  conspicuous,  inserted  at  upper  end  of  the  face,  some- 
times many-jointed,  proboscis  usually  furnished  with  terminal 
lips,  body  rather  soft  and  brittle,  legs  approximated,  wings 
usually  present  and  frequently  furnished  with  a  discal  cell; 
adults  oviparous  or  larviparous,  never  in  all  their  stages  liv- 
ing externally  on  mammals,  birds  nor  honey  bees  (Suborder 
PROBOSCIDEA) i 

Antennae  usually  inconspicuous,  commonly  inserted  near  the 
middle  of  the  sides  of  the  face,  and  composed  of  from  one  to 
three  joints,  the  apex  furnished  with  a  style  or  bearing  several 
long  bristly  hairs,  proboscis  never  furnished  with  terminal 
lips,  body  integument  tough  and  leathery,  legs  on  one  side 
of  the  body  usually  widely  separated  from  those  on  the  other 
side,  wings,  when  present,  never  furnished  with  a  discal 
cell  ;  adults  pupiparous,  living  externally  upon  mammals, 
birds  or  honey  bees  (Suborder  EPROBOSCIDEA) 6i 


Suborder  PROBOSCIDEA  Latr. 

I — Discal  cell,  when  present,  usually  furnished  with  three  veins 
that  extend  to  the  wing-margin;  frequently  four  or  five 
posterior  cells  are  present,  the  third  vein  sometimes  forked ; 
if  the  second  basal  and  discal  cells  are  confluent  the  color 


The  True  Flies 

of  the  body  is  usually  metallic  greenish  or  the  antennal 
style  is  usually  apical,  antennae  sometimes  composed  of 
more  than  three  joints  ;  head  of  the  larva  of  a  firm 
texture  and  definite  shape,  pupa  not  inclosed  in  the  old 
larval  skin,  or  if  inclosed  this  never  forms  a  hard,  cylindrical 
puparium,  the  pupa  or  the  imago  issuing  through  a  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  fissure  (Section  Orthorhapha). .   2 

Discal  cell,  when  present,  never  furnished  with  more  than  two 
veins;  never  more  than  three  posterior  cells  are  present, 
the  third  vein  never  forked;  when  the  second  basal  cell  is 
confluent  with  the  discal  the  color  of  the  body  is  never 
metallic  green;  antennae  never  more  than  three-jointed, 
the  terminal  joint  usually  furnished  with  a  slender  arista 
which  is  generally  dorsal,  empodium  bristle-like  or  want- 
ing ;  head  of  the  larva  soft  and  mobile  except  the  mandi- 
bles, the  pupa  inclosed  in  the  hardened  skin  of  the  larva, 
which  is  ruptured  circularly  near  the  anterior  end  during 
the  emergence  of  the  imago  (Section  Cyclorhapha).  ■  .30 


Section  ORTHORHAPHA  Brauer. 

-Joints  of  antennae  more  than  three  in  number;  the  last  one 
seldom  furnished  with  a  slender  style  or  arista;  antennae 
and  legs  usually  very  long  and  slender;  body  also 
usually  slender,  and  rather  delicate  (Subsection  Nevio- 
cera) 3 

Joints  of  antennas  never  more  than  three  in  number;  the  ter- 
minal one  much  longer  than  the  others  and  frequently 
annulate,  sometimes  furnished  with  a  jointed  style  or 
arista;  antennae  and  legs  usually  short  and  robust;  body 
often  elongated  (Subsection  Brachycera) 15 


Subsection  NEMOCERA  Latr. 

3 — Antennae  usually  long  and  slender,  the  joints  ^usually  longer 
than  broad,  and  nearly  always  provided  with  verticels  of 
bristly  hairs,  the  structure  frequently  very  different  in  the 
opposite  sexes  of  the  same  species;  eyes  seldom  broadly 
contiguous  above  the  antennae  in  either  sex,  sometimes 
narrowly  contiguous  above  and  below  the  antennae,  the 
facets  of  a  uniform  size  and  not  separated  by  a  transverse 
line  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  portion;  body  usually 
slender  and  elongate,  pulvilli  wanting  (Super-family 
Tiptiloidea) 4 


tgH  .01 


'    - !  i  1 1  M  1 !  A    .  ^  1 


Plate   XIII. 
SAW-FLIES   AND   HORN-TAILS 


FIG. 

FIG. 

I. 

Aridus  bimaculatus 

18. 

2. 

Calamenta  clavatus 

19. 

3- 

Panrurus  apicalis 

20. 

4- 

Tenthredo  lobata 

21. 

5- 

Macroxyela  senea 

22. 

6. 

Harpiphorus  tarsatus 

23- 

7- 

Pseudosiobla  excavata 

24. 

8. 

Macrophya  trisyllata 

25. 

9- 

Hylotoma  humeralis 

26. 

lO. 

Harpiphorus  varianus 

27. 

1 1. 

Rhogogaster  nimbipennis 

28. 

12. 

Panrurus  cyaneus 

29. 

13- 

Macrophya  epinolas 

30. 

14. 

Hylotoma  pectoralis 

3'- 

IS- 

Allantus  basilaris 

32. 

16. 

Tenthredo  rufopectus 

33- 

17- 

Urocerus  abdominalis  ,5 

Tenthredo  basilaris 
Hylotoma  rubra 
Dolerus  albifrons 
Hylotoma  McLeayi 
Dolerus  tejonicus 
Tenthredo  rufipes 
Urocerus  abdominalis  ? 
Tenthredo  cinctibilis 
Pamphilius  brunnicans 
Dolerus  sericeus 
Abia  kennicotti 
Xeris  caudatus 
Tenthredo  grandis 
Tremex  sericeus 
Tenthredo  verticalis 
Trichiosoma  lanuginosa 


The  Insect  Book 


The  True  Flies 


Antennae  rather  short,  never  furnished  with  verticels  of  bristly 
hairs,  of  the  same  structure  in  both  sexes,  eyes  frequently 
broadly  contiguous  above  the  antenna,  but  always  sepa- 
rated below  it,  pulvilli  frequently  well  developed,  body 
rather  robust  (Super-family  Bibionoidea) 1 1 


Super-family  TIPULOIDEA  Coq. 

4— Thorax  never  furnished  with  a  distinct  V-shaped  groove  near 
the  middle  of  the  upper  side,  discal  cell  always  wanting  5 

Thorax  furnished  with  such  a  groove,  discal  cell  usually  pres- 
ent, mostly  large  flies,  some  of  them  the  largest  in  this 

subsection ;  crane-flies Family  Tipulidce. 

5— Last  subdivision  of  the  veins  which  reach  the  wing-margin  at 
least  nine  in  number,  hind  margin  of  the  wings  encom- 
passed by  a  vein,  tibias  never  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
spurs  at  the  apex  of  the  inner  side 6 

Last  subdivision  of  the  veins  which  reach  the  wing-margin 
not  more  than  eight  in  number,  tibiae  sometimes  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  terminal  spurs 8 

6 — Veins  of  the  wings  bearing  long  hairs  or  scales 7 

Veins  bare,  in  the  outer  half  of  the  wing  three  of  the  veins  are 
forked  and  there  are  two  cross-veins  ;  rather  large  and 
rare  flies Family  Dixidce. 

7— Wings  long  and  slender,  the  veins  and  body  bearing  flattened 
scales;  mosquitoes Family  Ciilicidx. 

Wings  usually  broad,  like  the  body  covered  with  long  hairs  ; 
small,  moth-like  flies Family  Psychodidce. 

8— First  two  veins  never  coalescing  and  then  separating  into  four 
branches ^ 

First  two  veins  near  their  bases  coalescing  for  a  considerable 
distance  and  then  separating  into  four  branches,  the  re- 
maining vein  forked  ;  rather  small,  very  rare  flies 

Family  StenoxenidcB. 

9— Posterior  margin  of  the  wings  encompassed  by  a  vein,  or  the 
tibiae  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long,  apical  spurs 10 

Posterior  margin  of  the  wings  not  encompassed  by  a  vein, 
tibiae  never  furnished  with  a  pair  of  apical  spurs,  ocelli 
wanting,  antennae  of  the  male  frequently  feather-like  or 

with  a  pencil  of  long  hairs Family  Chironomida. 

8s 


The  True  Flies 

lo — Tibiae  not  furnished  with  apical  spurs,  ocelli  usually  wanting, 
wings  mostly  with  only  three  veins  of  which  the  last 

one  is  forked  ;  small,  delicate  flies  ;  gall  gnats 

Family  Cecidomyiida'. 

Tibise  furnished  with  a  pair  of  spurs  at  the  apex  of  the  inner 
side,  ocelli  present Family  Mycetophilidcr. 

Super-family   BIBIONOIDEA  Coq. 

II — Ocelli  absent,  or  the  wings  covered  with  a  net-work  of 
creased  lines,  or  the  discal  cell  present 12 

Ocelli  present,  wings  never  furnished  with  a  discal  cell  nor 
with  a  net-work  of  creased  lines,  the  front  tibise  are 
sometimes  greatly  swollen,  or  in  some  cases  are  fur- 
nished with  a  circle  of  short  spines.  -Family  Bibionidcc. 

12 — Vertex  of  head  not  furnished  with  ocelli;  flies  of  small  size,  13 

Vertex  of  head  furnished  with  ocelli,  wings  rather  long  and 
narrow 14 

13 — Antennae  of  nearly  an  equal  thickness,  wings  unusually 
broad,  the  veins  on  the  posterior  portion  faint ;  the 
black-flies Family  Simuliidce. 

Antenna  very  thick  at  its  base,  rapidly  tapering  to  a  style- 
like, jointed  apical  portion,  the  palpi  are  almost  as  long 
as  the  antenna;  very  rare  flies-  -Family  Orphnephilidce. 

14 — Wings  furnished  with  a  net-work  of  creased  lines,  discal 
cell  never  present Family  Blepharoceridct. 

Wings  never  furnished  with  creased  lines,  discal  cell  present; 
rather  large  flies Family  Rhyphidce. 

Sub-section   BRACHYCERA  Macq. 

15 — Empodium  broad,  similar  to  the  two  pulvilli,  third  joint  of 
the  antennae  frequently  annulated,  body  and  legs  not 
provided  with  stout  bristles  (Super-family  Tabanoidea)\6 

Empodium  narrow,  bristle-like,  or  wanting,  third  joint  of  the 
antennae  never  annulated,  body  and  legs  frequently  fur- 
nished with  stout  bristles 21 

Super-family  TABANOIDEA  Coq. 

16 — Calypteres  very  large,  or  the  tibia;  not  furnished  with  ter- 
minal spurs 17 

86 


The  True  Flies 

Calypteres  small  or  rudimentary,  at  least  one  pair  of  tibiae 
provided  with  distinct  spurs  at  the  apex  of  the  inner 
side Family  Lepiidce. 

17 — Third  joint  of  the  antennre  distinctly  annulated 18 

Third  joint  not  annulated 20 

18 — Discal  cell  lying  in  the  middle  of  the  width  of  the  wing,  pos- 
terior margin  of  the  wing  encompassed  by  a  vein. ...  19 

Discal  cell  lying  between  the  middle  of  the  width  of  the  wing 
and  the  costa,  posterior  margin  of  the  wing  not  encom- 
passed by  a  vein Family  Stratiomyiida\ 

19 — Tibiae  never  furnished  with  terminal  spurs,  calypteres  rudi- 
mentary; large  flies  from  Middle  and  South  America. . . 
Family  Acanthomeridce. 

Tibias  provided  with  terminal  spurs  on  at  least  one  pair, 
calypteres  very  large;   horse-flies Family  Tabanidce. 

20 — Head  small,  much  narrower  than  the  very  convex  thorax, 

calypteres  very  large;  hump-backed  flies 

Family  Acroceridcv. 

Head  at  least  as  wide  as  the  depressed  thorax,  calypteres  very 
small ;  flies  not  at  all  hump-backed.  Family  Nemestrinidce. 

21 — When  five  posterior  cells  are  present  the  fourth  vein  ends 
before  the  extreme  apex  of  the  wing;  when  less  than 
five  the  anal  cell  is  much  longer  than  the  second  basal 
and  the  third  vein  ends  below  the  tip  of  the  wing,  dis- 
cal cell  always  present  (Super-family  Bombylioidea.)..23 

When  five  posterior  cells  are  present  the  fourth  vein  ends 
below  the  extreme  apex  of  the  wing,  when  less  than 
five  the  anal  cell  is  wanting,  or,  if  present,  is  shorter  or 
scarcely  longer  than  the  second  basal,  or  the  third  vein 
ends  before  the  extreme  apex  of  the  wing,  discal  cell 
sometimes  coalescing  with  one  of  the  other  cells 24 


Super-family    BOMBYLIOIDEA    Coq. 

22 — Wings  provided  with  less  than  five  posterior  cells 23 

Wings  provided  with  five  posterior  cells,  fourth  vein  ending 
before  the  wing  tip,  antennal  style  much  narrower  than 

the  third  antennal  joint;  inhabit  the  southwest 

Family  Apiocerida'. 

2j — Style  of  the  antennae  flat,  much  wider  than  the  third  antennal 
joint ;  large,  elongate,  nearly  bare  flies . .  Family  Mydaidce. 

8? 


The  True  Flies 

Style  of  antennae,  when  present,  much  narrower  than  the 
third  antennal  joint,  fourth  vein  ending  below  the  wing 
tip Family  Boinbyliidcv. 

24 — Discal  cell  wanting  or  coalescing  with  one  of  the  other  cells, 
fourth  vein  coalescing  with  the  fifth  for  a  considerable 
distance,  or  the  wings  having  two  longitudinal  and 
three  or  four  oblique  veins  issuing  from  the  second 
(Super-family  Phoroidea) 29 

Discal  cell  usually  present,  fourth  vein  not  coalescing  with 
the  fifth,  wings  provided  with  more  than  two  longi- 
tudinal veins  (Super-family  Asiloidea) 25 


Super-family  ASILOIDEA  Coq. 

25 — Apex  of  the  third  vein  usually  situated  below  the  extreme  tip 
of  the  wing,  body  sometimes  metallic  green  or  bluish :  26 

Apex  of  the  third  vein  situated  at  or  above  the  tip  of  the 
wing,  body  never  metallic  green  or  bluish,  proboscis 
furnished  with  terminal  lips,  anal  cell  much  longer  than 
the  second  basal,  three  posterior  cells  present,  third 
vein  forked,  antennae  not  furnished  with  a  style  or  arista 
Family  Scenopinidce. 

26 — With  five  posterior  cells  in  each  wing,  anal  cell  always 
present  and  much  longer  than  the  second  basal,  third 
vein  always  forked 27 

With  less  than  five  posterior  cells,  anal  cell  sometimes  want- 
ing; when  present  it  is  shorter  or  only  slightly  longer 
than  the  second  basal  cell 28 

27 — Proboscis  furnished  with  terminal  lips,  face  strongly  retreat- 
ing on  its  lower  part,  not  bristly Family  Therevidcv. 

Proboscis  sharp-pointed,  not  provided  with  terminal  lips, 
face  projecting  forward  or  convex  on  its  lower  part, 

provided  with  strong  bristles  or  long  hairs 

Family  Asilida\ 

28 — Second  basal  cell,  when  confluent  with  the  discal,  the  color 
of  the  body  is  never  metallic  green,  anal  cell  sometimes 
wanting,  third  vein  sometimes  forked-  -Family  Empidce. 

Second  basal  cell  confluent  with  the  discal,  anal  cell  always 
present,  third  vein  never  forked,  color  of  body  usually 
metallic  green Family  Dolichopodidce. 


The  True  Flies 

Super-family   PHOROIDEA  Coq. 

29 — Wings  furnisiied  with  more  than  two  longitudinal  veins, 
fourth  vein  coalescing  with  the  fifth  beyond  the  apex  of 
the  second  basal  cell,  then  separating  into  three  branches, 
axillary  lobe  and  cell  wanting,  anal  cell  very  narrow. . . 
Family  Loiuhopteridcv. 

Wings  furnished  with  two  longitudinal  veins,  situated  near 
the  costa,  the  second  vein  sending  three  or  four  indistinct 
veins  obliquely  toward  the  posterior  margin  of  the  wing 
Family  Phoridce. 


Section  CYCLORHAPHA  Brauer. 

30 — Anal  cell  present,  distinctly  longer  than  the  second  basal,  the 
discal  cell  sometimes  wanting,  both  basal  cells  usually 
present  (Super-family  Syrphoidea) 31 

Anal  cell,  when  present,  shorter  than  the  second  basal,  but 
one  or  both  of  these  cells  frequently  wanting  (Super- 
family  Muscoidea) 34 


Super-family   SYRPHOIDEA  Coq. 

31 — Proboscis  short  and  robust,  no  supernumary  vein  between 
the  third  and  fourth  veins 32 

Proboscis  slender  and  elongate  or  the  wings  provided  with 
supernumary  vein  between  the  third  and  fourth  veins. 33 

^2 — Head  less  than  one-half  as  long  as  the  thorax,  the  face  and 
front  broad Family  PIatype{idw. 

Head  unusually  large,  nearly  as  long  as  the  thorax,  except 

on  the  occiput  almost  wholly  covered  by  the  eyes 

Family  Pipunculidce. 

^} — With  a  supernumary  vein  between  the  third  and  fourth  veins, 
crossing  the  small  cross-vein,  the  proboscis  usually  short 
and  robust Family  Syrphidce. 

With  no  supernumary  vein,  the  proboscis  very  slender  and 
elongate Family  Conopidce. 


Super-family    MUSCOIDEA  Coq. 

34 — Lower,    or    posterior,  calypter   distinct,  usually  projecting 

beyond  the  upper  (Group  Calypteratce) 35 

89 


The  True  Flies 


Lower  calypter  minute  or  wanting,  eyes  broadly  separated 
in  both  sexes  (Group  Acalypterce) 40 


Group   CALYPTERAT/E   Desv. 

35 — Oral  opening  large,  tiie  proboscis  well  developed 36 

Oral  opening  very  small,  the  proboscis  and  palpi  rudimentary, 
the  antennae  very  short  and  somewhat  concealed  in 
cavities;  rather  large,  robust  flies Family  CEstridce. 

36 — Pleura  bearing  a  perpendicular  row  of  bristles  above  the  pos- 
terior coxas 37 

Pleura  not  bearing  such  a  row  of  bristles,  those  of  the  abdo- 
men weak 39 

37 — Antennal  arista  hairy  or  plumose,  at  least  on  the  basal 
portion 38 

Antennal  arista  bare  or  pubescent Family  Tachinidce. 

38 — Arista  of  antennie  hairy  nearly  or  quite  to  the  apex,  legs 
usually  very  long,  abdomen  provided  with  stout  bristles 
Family  Dexiidcv. 

Arista  bare  on  its  broad  apical  portion  or  the  bristles  of  the 

abdomen  weak,  legs  short  and  robust 

Family  Sarcophagidce. 

39 — Fourth  vein  before  its  apex  strongly  curving  toward  the  third 
Family  Miiscidce. 

Fourth  vein  not  or  only  slightly  curving  toward  the  third. . . 
Family  Aiithoniyiidx. 


Group  ACALYPTERy^   Macq. 

40 — Auxiliary  vein  distinct,  separated  from  the  first  and  terminat- 
ing in  the  costa,  the  anal  cell  present 41 

Auxiliary  vein  absent,  or  confused  with  the  first  vein ....  52 

41 — Anterior  oral  margin  bearing  a  distinct  bristle  on  either  side  42 

Anterior  oral  margin  never  bearing  such  bristles,  their  places 
sometimes  occupied  by  several  short  bristly  hairs. .  •  45 

42 — Costa  of  the  wings  bearing  numerous  spines,  or  the  bristles 
of  the  front  confined  to  the  upper  half 44 

Costa  of  the  wings  not  beset  with  spines,  front  usually  bristly 
from  the  vertex  almost  to  the  antennae 43 

90 


The  True  Flies 

43 — Third  joint  of  the  antennre  noticeably  longer  than  broad  .... 
Family  Scatophagnia'. 

Third  joint  broader  than  long,  the  last  section  of  the  fourth 
vein  usually  much  longer  than  the  preceding  section. . . 
Family  Heteroneiiridce. 

44 — ^Front  edge  of  the  wings  not  beset  with  spines  (Sepsida-,  in 
couplet  si)- 
Front  edge  of  the  wings  beset  with  short  spines,  thorax  con- 
vex, third  joint  of  the  antennas  nearly  circular 

Family  Helomy:{idce. 

45 — Tibiae  bearing  an  erect  bristle  on  the  outer  side  before  the 
apex,  anal  and  basal  cells  present 46 

Tibiae  not  furnished  with  such  a  bristle,  anal  cell  present.  48 
46 — Body  convex,  the  face  and  cheeks  not  unusually  bristly.  •  .47 

Body  greatly  depressed,  the  face  and  cheeks  unusually  bristly 
Family  Phycodroinidce. 

47 — Sixth  vein  of  the  wings  prolonged  to  the  wing-margin 

Family  Sciomy^idce. 

Sixth  vein  obliterated  before  reaching  the  wing-margin 

Family  Saprom}\idiV. 

48 — Legs  usually  short  and  robust,  abdomen  usually  ovate  and 
rather  short,  in  the  female  furnished  with  a  horny  ovi- 
positor   49 

Legs  and  body  usually  very  elongate  and  slender,  abdomen  of 
female  not  furnished  with  a  horny  ovipositor,  bristles  of 
the  front  confined  to  the  upper  half 51 

49 — Basal  and  ana!  cells  large,  the  latter  usually  prolonged  at  its 
lower  apical  angle 50 

Basal  and  anal  cells  small,  the  latter  not  prolonged  at  its 
lower  apical  angle,  bristles  of  the  front  confined  to  its 
upper  half Family  Lonchcvidce. 

50 — Auxiliary  vein  gradually  curving  to  the  costa  toward  its  apex, 

bristles  of  the  front  confined  to  the  upper  half 

Family  OrtalidiT. 

Auxiliary  vein  abruptly  bent  forward  near  its  apex,  bristles 
of  the  front  extending  from  the  vertex  almost  to  its 
lower  end Family   Trypetidce. 

51 — Face  in  profile  retreating  on  its  lower  part,  palpi  usually 
large,  third  and  fourth  veins  usually  strongly  converging 

toward  their  apices Family  Micrope{idce. 

91 


The   True  Flies 

Face  perpendicular  and  somewhat  projecting  forward  on  its 
lower  part,  palpi  minute,  third  and  fourth  veins  parallel 
or  diverging  toward  their  apices Family  Sepsuiiv. 

<j2 — Femora  and  usually  the  body  short  and  robust 54 

Femora  slender  and  elongated,  body  also  usually  elongated, 
anal  cell  present 53 

53 — Fourth  vein  parallel  with  or  diverging  from  the  third  vein. . 
Family  PsiliJiV. 

Fourth  vein  usually  curving  toward  the  third  at  its  apex 
(MicropeiidcE,  in  couplet  51). 

54 — Head  nearly  hemispherical,  not  prolonged  laterally 55 

Head  prolonged  laterally,  the  eyes  situated  at  the  apices  of 

the  prolongations,  front  femora  very  robust 

Family  Diopsidct. 

55 — Anterior  oral  margin  bearing  a  distinct  bristle  on  either 
side 58 

Anterior  oral  margin  not  bearing  such  bristles 56 

56 — Anal  cell  usually  wanting,  the  second  basal  cell  usually  con- 
fluent with  the  discal  cell 57 

Anal  cell  distinct,  second  basal  cell  usually  separated  from  the 
discal  cell  ( Agi'oviv^ida\  in  couplet  60). 

57 — Antennal  arista  frequently  long-pectinate  on  the  upper  side, 
head  usually  much  wider  than  high,  face  usually  pro- 
vided with  bristles  especially  on  each  side,  and  the  oral 

opening  sometimes  excessively  large 

Family  Ephydridce. 

Antennal  arista  never  long-pectinate,  head  not  wider  than 
high,  face  not  bristly,  and  the  oral  opening  never  un- 
usually large Family  OscinidcB. 

58 — Arista  of  antennae  bare,  body  short  and  robust 60 

Arista  usually  plumose;  if  bare  the  ^body  is  some  what 
slender 59 

59 — Hairs  of  the  antennal  arista  long  and  few  in  number,  second 

basal  cell  usually  confluent  with  the  discal  cell 

Family  DrosophilidcB. 

Hairs  of  the  arista  short  and  numerous,  sometimes  wanting; 

second  basal  cell  separated  from  the  discal  cell 

Family  Geomy^idce. 


.vl/     r  y  iM 


Plate  XIV. 
SAW-FLIES 


1.  Schizocerus  plumigera ,? 

2.  Macroceplius  trifasciatus 

3.  Emphytus  mellipes 

4.  Lyda  ocreata  $ 

<y.  Lophyrus  lecontei 

6.  Schizocerus  plumigera  ? 

7.  Hylotoma  caeruleus 

8.  Emphytus  cinctipes 

9.  Lyda  ocreata  ? 

10.  Periclista  purpuridorsum 

11.  Monoctenus  juniper!  ? 

12.  Hylotoma  clavicornis 

13.  Phymatocera  fumipennis 

14.  Lyda  multisignata 

15.  Neurotoma  fasciata 

16.  Monoctenus  juniper!  ? 

17.  Hylotoma  miniata 

18.  Tenthredo  formosa 

19.  Hemichroa  albidovariata 


KIG. 

20. 


23- 
24. 

2S. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 

33- 
34- 
3S. 
36. 

37- 


Macrophya  incerta 
Zaraa  americana 
Liolyda  plagiata 
Strongylogaster  soriculata 
Dolerus  coioradensis 
Macrophya  formosa 
Parasiobla  rufocinctus 
Trichiosoma  crassum 
Pteronus  trilineatus 
Pachynematus  extensicornis 
Strongylogaster  terminalis 
Dolerus  similis 
Pteronus  coryli 
Harpiphorus  intermedius 
Xiphidria  provancheri 
Panrurus  areolatus 
Xeris  morrisonii 
Tenthredo  discrepans 


Phe  Insect  Book 


The  True  Flies 


60 — First  joint  of  the  posterior  tarsi  slender,   longer  than  the 
second  joint Family  Agromyiidce. 

First  joint  greatly  dilated,  shorter  than  the  second 

Family  Borboridce. 


Sub-order    EPROBOSCIDEA    Latr. 

61— Head  greatly  depressed,  projecting  forward  or  downward, 
body  usually  depressed;   living   on    mammals   (except 

bats),  birds,  or  honey  bees Family  Hippoboscidce. 

Head  rounded,  projecting  backward  upside  down  over  the 
thorax,  body  usually  nearly  cylindrical;  living  upon  bats 
Family  Nycteribiidce. 


THE  CRANE  FLIES 


(Family   Tipiilida;.) 

The  big  slender  long-necked  flies,  commonly  known  as 
"crane  flies"  in  this  country  and  as  "daddy-long-legs"  in 
England,*  form  a  distinct  and  characteristic  group  of  flies.     They 

have  long  antennae 
and  very  long  slen- 
der legs  which  are 
so  slightly  attached 
that  it  is  difficult  to 
capture  a  Tipulid 
without  breaking 
one  or  more  of  them. 
The  thorax  has  a 
V-shaped  suture  on 
the  back  and  the 
wings  contain  nu- 
merous veins  and 
usually  a  perfect  dis- 
cal  cell. 

Crane  flies  are 
frequently  taken  for 
big  mosquitoes,  but 
they  differ  entirely  in 
habits  and  do  not 
bite,  although  those 
of  the  genus  Ele- 
phantomyia  have  a 
long  proboscis,  even 
longer  than  that  of  a  mosquito.  The  larvae  of  most  species  live 
in  the  earth  but  some  live  in  water,  in  decomposing  wood  and 

*  The  term  "daddy-longlegs"  in  this  country  is  applied  exclusively  to  the 
so-called  harvest  spiders  of  the  family  Phalangiidte. 
94 


Fig.  51. — Pachyrhina  sp.     (After  Webster.) 


The  Crane   Flies 

even  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  Some  of  the  earth-inhabiting 
forms  destroy  grass  and  grain  by  injuring  the  roots.  They 
breathe  through  two  anal  spiracles  which  in  aquatic  species  are 
placed  at  the  tip  of  a  long  process.  The  pupal  stigmatic  tube  is 
set  anteriorly,  the  same  change  from  the  anal  end  to  the  head  end 
taking  place  in  the  transformation  to  pupa  as  occurs  with  the 
mosquitoes.  The  pupa  itself  resembles  somewhat  a  Lepidop- 
terous  pupa. 

The  adult  flies  are  commonly  seen  in  the  late  summer  and 
are  found  in  pastures  and  woods,  sometimes,  especially  with  the 
smaller  species,  swarming  towards  sundown.  More  than  one 
thousand  species  are  known  and  about  three  hundred  of  them 
occur  in  the  United  States.  Certain  forms  appear  in  the  early 
spring  and  there  is  a  curious  wingless  genus — Chionea — the 
species  of  which  are  found  upon  the  snow. 

The  wings  of  the  crane  flies  are  generally  clear  but  are  some- 
times beautifully  marked  and  spotted  as  in  Limnobia  and  Tipula. 
The  large  and  beautiful  Pedicia  albivittata  Walk  has  striking 
brown  bands  on  a  white  wing  surface.  It  is  found  in  the  White 
mountains  and  the  Catskill  mountains,  as  well  as  in  the  far  north- 
west and  in  Alaska.  Bittacoinorplia  with  its  short  wings  and 
banded  legs  and  swollen  feet  is  a  most  striking  form.  The  Cali- 
fornia genus  Holonisia  contains  the  giants  of  the  family  and  H. 
grandis  has  a  wing  spread  of  more  than  three  inches.  The  colors 
of  the  crane  flies  are  usually  dull,  but  in  Ctenophora  the  body 
is  frequently  brilliantly  marked  with  red.  in  this  genus  the  ab- 
domen is  pointed  so  as  to  resemble  the  ovipositor  of  some 
Hymenopterous  insects  and  the  male  abdomen  is  swollen  at  the 
tip  almost  like  that  of  one  of  the  so-called  "Scorpion  flies"  of  the 
family  Panorpidae  {q.  v.). 


Life  History  of  a  Crane  Fly 

( Bittaconiorplia  clavipes  Fab.^ 

Comparatively  few  species  of  this  family  have  been  carefully 
studied,  but  in  his  important  paper  on  the  "Entomology  of  the 
Illinois  River  and  Adjacent  Waters,"  Mr.  C.  A.  Hart  records  some 
interesting  facts  concerning  this  species.  The  genus  Bittaco- 
morpha  is  found  exclusively  in  America  and  the  larvse  of  thein- 

95 


The  Crane  Flies 

sect  under  consideration  were  found  in  the  early  spring  in  a 
siiailow  swampy  slough  full  of  rushes  and  swamp  grass.  In  the 
mass  of  dead  stems,  grass  and  leaves,  through  which  a  broad 
stream  of  water  ran  slowly,  were  found  the  cylindrical  rusty- 
brown  larvae  of  Bittacomorpha,  which  in  their  appearance  look 
like  bits  of  decaying  grass  stem.  Their  stomachs  were  found  to 
be  filled  with  diatoms,  mud  and  dead  vegetable  tissue  and  the 
larvae  had  evidently  fed  on  the  diatomaceous  growth  which  coated 
the  decaying  stems.  At  the  anal  end  of  the  body  was  a  long 
respiratory  tube  bearing  two  pairs  of  spiracles  at  the  end.  About 
the  end  of  March  they  showed  some  swelling  and  within  the 
loose  skin  the  soft  white  pupae  were  found.  The  thoracic  res- 
piratory tube  was  rudimentary  and  the  tube  was  coiled  between 
the  larval  and  pupal  skins.  On  April  6th  the  first  adult  flies  is- 
sued. Later,  in  September,  a  number  of  adults  were  seen  flying, 
which  indicates  either  an  emergence  of  the  same  generation  both 
in  fall  and  spring  or  two  generations  annually,  the  offspring  of 
the  fall  flies  remaining  in  the  larval  state  through  the  winter  and 
giving  forth  adults  in  the  spring.  The  eggs  have  not  been  ob- 
served and  a  more  careful  study  of  this  species  is  needed. 


FAMILIES  DIXIDy^  AND  STENOXENIDy^ 

The  little  midges  of  the  Dixida  resemble  mosquitoes,  but 
they  do  not  bite.  They  all  belong  to  the  single  genus  Dixa, 
which  is  so  distinct  from  the  other  Diptera  as  to  constitute  a 
group  of  family  rank  all  by  itself  We  have  less  than  ten  species 
in  this  country.  The  Dixas  seem  intermediate  between  the 
mosquitoes  and  the  crane  flies.  They  are  found  in  damp  places 
in  forests,  and  in  the  larval  state  are  aquatic.  The  larva  is  con- 
siderably like  that  of  a  mosquito,  and  might  by  the  careless 
observer  well  be  taken  for  the  larva  of  a  mosquito  of  the  malaria- 
bearing  genus  Anopheles.  The  Dixa  larva  has  fringes  on  the 
upper  jaws  like  those  in  mosquito  larva,  but  it  differs  in  having 
leg-like  projections  from  the  first  two  segments  of  the  abdomen. 
It  is  found  in  shallow  water  and  breathes  air  as  do  the  mosquito 
larvae.  The  pupa  has  respiratory  siphons  on  the  thorax  just 
as  does  the  pupa  of  mosquitoes. 

Stenoxenidce  is  a  family  name  proposed  by  Coquillett  for  a 
single  little  fly  of  curious  venational  structure — Steiioxenus  john- 
soni — which  is  known  only  from  Delaware  Water  Gap,  N.  J. 


97 


MOSQUITOES 

(Family  Culicidce.) 


This  group  includes  the  familiar  insects  known  as  mosqui- 
toes— not  a  large  group,  but  a  very  important  one,  not  only  from 
the  fact  that  mosquitoes  abound  in  so  many  localities  and  are 
great  annoyances  to  man  and  animals,  but  also  from  the  fact  that 

they  are  active 
agents  in  the 
transfer  of  dis- 
ease. They  are 
found  in  great 
abundance  in 
tropical  regions, 
in  temperate  re- 
gions and  even 
far  to  the  North. 
Travelers  in 

Alaska  state  that 
the  abundance 
and  voracity  of 
the  Alaskan  mos- 
quitoes is  be- 
yond descrip- 
tion. They  oc- 
cur with  equal 
abundance  in 
Lapland  and  in 
Greenland. 

So  far  as 
definitely  known 
the  larva:  of  all  mosquitoes  are  aquatic,  although  they  are  true 
air-breathers;  that  is  to  say,  they  must  come  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  to  breathe.     They  are  rapid  breeders,  and  pass  the  pupal 


Fig.  52. — Anopheles  punctipennis :    Female  with  male  an- 
tenna at  right,  and  wing-tip  showing  venation  at  left — 
enlarged.     (Author's  illustration.) 


Mosquitoes 


condition  also  in  the  water,  but  floating  normally  at  the  surface. 
They  pass  through  several  generations  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
and  hibernate  as  adults.  Hibernating  mosquitoes  may  often  be 
found  during  the  winter  months  in  barns  and  in  the  cellars  and 
cold  garrets  of  houses  or  in  sheltered  places  like  outhouses  and 
under  bridges  and  stone  culverts.  In  the  extreme  southern  states 
many  mosquitoes  are  active  all  through  the  winter,  and  mosquito- 
bars  are  almost  as  necessary  at  Christmas  time  as  during  the 
summer.  Even  as  far  north  as  Baltimore,  mosquitoes  sometimes 
bite  in  houses  in  December  and  January,  in  places  where  there 
are  prolonged 
dry    spells,    and  '^. 

very  heavy  rains 
are  only  ex- 
pected at  certain 
seasons  of  the 
year,  adult  mos- 
quitoes live 
through  the  dry 
spells  and  lay 
their  eggs  as 
soon  as  the  rains 
come.  This  is 
the  case  in  the 
dry  regions  of 
our  southwest- 
ern country,  and 
it  is  also  the 
case  in  tropical 
countries  where 
the  entire  year  is 
divided  into  a 
wet  season  and 
a     dry    season. 

In  those  countries  the  wet  season  is  generally  considered  as 
comparable  to  our  winter,  yet  it  is  the  active  breeding  season 
of  mosquitoes,  while  the  dry  season,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
comparable  to  our  summer,  is  the  season  when  the  adult  mos- 
quitoes live  on  and  on.  With  these  insects,  as  with  so  many 
others,  the  life  of  the  adult  seems  to  be  dependent  only  upon 

99 


.^■ 


Fig.    53. — Culex    t£Eniorhynchus  :     Female,    showing   the 

short  palpi  which  distinguish  Culex  from  Anopheles ; 

toothed  front  tarsal  claw  at  right — enlarged. 

( Author^ 5  illustration.) 


Mosquitoes 

the  opportunity  of  propagating  the  species.     The  main  purpose 
of  the  adult  is  propagation. 

The  adult  male  mosquito  does  not  necessarily  take  nourish- 
ment and  the  adult  female  does  not  necessarily  rely  upon  the 
blood  of  the  warm-blooded  animals.  The  mouth-parts  of  the 
male  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  female  that  it  is  probable 


Fig.  54. — Anopheles  maculipennis  :     Adult;  male  at  left,  female  at  right- 
enlarged.     (Author's  illustration. ) 


that  if  it  feeds  at  all  it  obtains  its  food  in  quite  a  different  manner 
from  the  female.  They  will  sip  water  or  any  liquid  substance, 
and  appear  to  be  especially  fond  of  beer  and  wine.  The  females 
are  normally,  without  much  doubt,  plant-feeders,  and  very  few 
of  them  get  an  opportunity  to  taste  the  blood  of  a  warm-bodied 
animal.  They  will  feed  upon  other  than  warm-blooded  animals. 
They  have  been  seen  puncturing  the  heads  of  young  fish;  they 


Mosquitoes 


have  been  seen  puncturing  the  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly,  and  they 
have  been  seen  swarming  about  turtles  when  the  latter  are  on 
land.  The  larvae  on  the  contrary,  feed  upon  all  sorts  of  minute 
organisms  floating  in  the  water,  such  as  the  spores  of  algae  and 
minute  aquatic  animals.  They  are 
all  furnished  with  many  bristles  at 
the  mouth,  and  these  bristles  are 
kept  in  constant  vibration  drawing 
particles  floating  or  in  suspension 
in  the  water  into  the  mouth  cavity. 

Five  genera  of  mosquitoes  are 
represented  in  this  country,  namely 
Anopheles,  Aedes,  Megarhiniis, 
Psorophora  and  Culex.  Most  of 
our  species  belong  to  the  genus 
Culex,  and  one  species  of  this  genus 
has  been  selected  for  the  typical 
life  history   which    is   given. 

The  mosquitoes  of  the  genus 
Anopheles  are  the  ones  which  are 
responsible  for  the  transfer  of  ma- 
laria. The  micro-organism  of  malaria  is  a  protozoon  which  in 
the  human  being  inhabits  the  red-blood  corpuscles.  It  undergoes 
a  sporulating  development  in  the  red-blood  corpuscles,  the  spores 
being  thrown  into  the  blood  serum  afterward  entering  other 
blood  corpuscles  extracting  their  red  coloring  matter  and  destroy- 
ing them.  The  full  life  round  of  the  malarial  parasite,  however, 
is  not  completed  until  it  has  been  taken  with  the  blood  of  a 
human  being  into  the  stomach  of  a  mosquito  of  the  genus 
Anopheles.  Here,  and  here  only,  is  the  sexual  generation  of  the 
parasite  developed.  Certain  of  the  parasites  which  undergo  no 
development  in  the  human  body,  when  they  are  brought  into  the 
stomach  of  the  Anopheles  continue  a  sexual  development,  unite 
and  give  birth  to  elementary  forms,  known  as  blasts,  which  pene- 
trate the  stomach  wall  of  the  mosquito,  enter  the  salivary 
glands,  and  are  thus  with  the  poison  directed  into  the  body 
of  the  next  human  being  punctured  by  this  mosquito. 

We  have  in  the  United  States  three  species  of  mosqui- 
toes of  this  malarial  genus  Anopheles,  namely  A.  macnlipeiinis= 
quadrimacitlatiis=claviger,  A.  piinctipennis  and  A.  crucians. 


^'g-    55- — Anopheles   maculipennis : 

Egg  from  below  at  left,  from  above 

at  right — greatly  enlarged. 

(Author's  illustration.) 


Mosquitoes 

The  mosquitoes  of  the  genus  Aedes  are  excessively  small. 
Those  of  Megarhinus  and  Psorophora  are  very  large,  and  include 
the  forms  known  in  various  parts  of  the  country  as  gallinippers. 
Psorophora  is  distinguished  by  possessing  upright  scales  on  the 
legs;  Megarhinus  by  its  curved  beak.     Anopheles  is  distinguished 


Fig.  56. — Figure  at  top,  lialf  grown  larva  of  Anopheles  in  feeding 

position,  just   beneatli   surface   film.       Figure   at    bottom,  half 

grown  larva  of  Culex  in  breathing  position — greatly  enlarged. 

(Aitthor^s  illustration.) 


from  Ciilex  by  the  fact  that  the  palpi  of  the  female  are  nearly  as 
long  as  its  beak,  while  in  Ciilex  the  female  palpi  are  very  short. 
Mosquitoes  as  a  rule  do  not  fly  very  far.  Those  of  the 
genus  Anopheles  appear  to  be  of  extremely  short  flight.  Those 
of  the  genus  Ciilex  will  not  fly  far  away  from  their  breeding 


Mosquitoes 

places,  unless  they  are  carried  by  light  and  continued  winds. 
In  heavy  winds  they  cling  to  the  nearest  point  of  attachment. 
They  are  carried  long  distances  by  railroad  trains,  and  many 
localities  where  mosquitoes  were  unknown  have  become  infested 
by  the  introduction  of  railways  or  improvement  of  the  through 
train  service. 

Many  localities  can  be  practically  rid  of  mosquitoes  by  the 
adoption  of  any  one  of  three  measures:  either  by  the  drainage  oi 
the  swamps  or  ponds  in  which  they  breed,  or  by  the  use  of 
kerosene  upon  the  surface  of  the  waters  in  which  they  breed,  or 


l-'ig-  57-- 


-Pupa  of  Culex  pungens  at  left;  pupa  of  Anopheles  maculipennis 
at  right — greatly  enlarged.     (Author's  illustration.) 


by  the  introduction  of  fish  into  fishless  ponds  so  that  they  may 
eat  the  larvas  of  the  mosquitoes.  In  all  mosquito-extermination 
work,  however,  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  will  breed  suc- 
cessfully in  any  transient  pool  of  water  or  in  any  receptacle  where 
water  is  left  standing  for  a  week,  no  matter  how  small  this 
receptacle  may  be.  They  may  breed  in  collections  of  water  in 
the  hollows  of  old  stumps  or  in  old  bottles  or  in  old  discarded 
tomato  cans.  They  breed  profusely  in  rain-water  barrels,  and 
in  rain-water  tanks,  and  in  old  wells,  and  even  in  cess-pools 
where  the  adults  are  able  to  gain  access  to  such  pools.  There- 
fore every  possible  source  of  this  kind  must  be  hunted  for  when 
one  is  engaged  in  mosquito  extermination. 
103 


Mosquitoes 

Life  History  of  a  Mosquito 

(Culex  pnngcns  Wiedemann  J 

This  common  and  widespread  mosquito,  which  occurs  from 
the  White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire  to  Cuba,  and  from 
British  Columbia  to  Mexico,  lays  its  eggs,  numbering  from  200 
to  400,  in  a  raft-like  mass  on  the  surface  of  the  water.     The  eggs 


Fig.  58. — Psorophora  ciliata :    Female — enlarged.     (Author's  illustration.) 

are  laid  side  by  side,  standing  on  end  and  stuck  close  together  in 

longitudinal  rows  six  to  thirteen  in  number  and  with  from  three 

or  four  to  forty  eggs  in  a  row.     The  egg  mass  is  gray-brown 

104 


^ 


Plate  XV. 
TRUE   FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Physocephala  tibialis  (Conopidse)  Atlantic  States 

2.  Chrysopila  ornata  (Leptidas)  Atlantic  States 

3.  Psorophora  ciliata  (CulicidK)  U.  S. 

4.  Pyrgota  undata  (Ortalidae)  Eastern  half  of  U.  S 

5.  Empis  ravida  (Empidie)  N.  H. 

6.  Musca  domestica  (Muscidoe)  Cosmopolitan 

7.  Helicobia  quadrisetosa  (Sarcophagidce)  D.  C. 

8.  Bittacomorpha  clavipes  (Tipulidae)  U.  S. 

9.  Pyrgota  valida  (Ortalids)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

10.  Camptoneura  picta  (Ortalidse)  U.  S. 

11.  Morellia  inicans  (Muscidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

12.  Sarcophaga  sarracenias  (Sarcophagidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

13.  Calobata  lasciva  (Micropezida;)  Southern  U.  S..  W.  I.,  S.  A. 

14.  Tetanocera  plumosa  (Sciomyzidse)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

15.  Phormia  terrtenovie  (Sarcophagidas)  Northern  U.  S. 

16.  Calliphora  erythrocephala  (Sarcophagid^e)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

17.  Pachyrhina  ferruginea  (Tipulidse)  N.  A.,  Mex. 

18.  Bibio  albipennis  (Bibionidse)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

19.  Scatophaga  stercoraria  (Scatophagidie)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

20.  Lucilia  caesar  (Sarcophagida;)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

21.  Cynomyia  cadaverina  (Sarcophagidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

22.  Bombyliomyia  abrupta  (Tachinidae)  N.  A.,  Mex. 

23.  Odontomyia  binotata  (Stratiomyid^)  Western  half  U.  S. 

24.  Olfersia  americana  (Hippoboscidae)  U.  S. 

25.  Trichopoda  pennipes  (Tachinidae)  N.  A.,  Mex. 

26.  Gonia  capitata  i  (Tachinidae)  N.  A.,  Mex.,  Eur. 

27.  Echinomyia  algens  (Tachinidie)  Northern  N.  A. 

28.  Panzeria  radicum  (Tachinidie)  U.  S.  Eur. 

29.  Ocyptera  carolinas  (Tachinidit)  N.  A. 
90.  Gastrophilus  equi  (Oestridae)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

31.  Gonia  capitata  9  (Tachinidae)  N.  A.,  Mex.,  Eur. 
^2.  Jurinia  metallica  (Tachinidc-e)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 
^}.  Archytas  aterrima  (Tachinidae)  N.  A.,  W.  J 
34.  Hypoderma  lineata  (Oestrida)  N.  A.,  Eur. 
-35.  Tabanus  lineola  (Tabanidas)  U.  S.,  Mex. 

36.  Chrysops  niger  (Tabanidae)  Eastern  half  N.  A. 

37.  Chrysops  vittatus  (Tabanidx)  Northeastern  U.  S. 
-  38.  Tabanus  costalis  (Tabanidae)  Atlantic  States 

39.  Cuterebra  buccata  (Oestridas)  Eastern  U.  S. 

40.  Tabanus  americana  (Tabanidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 
"41.  Tabanus  lasiophthalmus  (Tabanidae)  Eastern  N.  A. 

42.  Tabanus  atrata  (Tabanidae)  Eastern  U.  S.,  Mex. 


The  Insect  Book. 


Mosquitoes 

from  above  and  silvery  white  from  below,  the  latter  color  being 
due  to  the  water  film.  The  eggs  are  laid  early  in  the  morning 
before  dawn  and  in  warm  weather  will  hatch  by  two  o'clock  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  same  day.  The  larvae  are  active  little  crea- 
tures' known  as  wrigglers  which  are  so  often  to  be  seen  in  rain- 
water barrels  and  horse  troughs.  The  anal  end  of  the  body  is 
provided  with  a  long  respiratory  tube  into  which  two  large  air 
vessels  extend  quite  to  its  tip,  where  they  have  a  double  orifice 
which  is  guarded  by  four  flaps.     This  tube  issues  from  the  eighth 


Fig.  59. — Culex  pungens:  Egg  mass,  with  enlarged  eggs  at  left  and  young 
larvK  below — enlarged.     (  Aidlwr\  illustration,  j 


segment  of  the  abdomen.  The  ninth  segment  is  armed  at  the  tip 
with  four  flaps  and  six  hairs.  The  flaps  are  gill-like  in  appear- 
ance, though  they  are  probably  simply  locomotary  in  function. 
The  mouth  parts  are  curiously  modified  and  are  provided  with 
long  cilia  which  are  kept  constantly  in  vibration,  attracting  and 
directing  into  the  mouth  minute  particles  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  water.  The  wriggler  remains 
at  the  surAice  of  the  water  when  breathing  through  its  respiratory 
tube  but  descends  when  seeking  lor  food.     It  undergoes  three 


Mosquitoes 

different  molts,  reaches  maturity  and  transforms  to  a  pupa  in  a 
minimum  of  seven  days  in  iiot  summer  weather,  tailing  much 
longer  in  the  early  spring  or  when  the  weather  grows  cool  in  the 
fall.  The  pupa  is  well  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  figure  and 
differs  radically  from  the  larva  or  wriggler  from  the  fact  that  it 
now  breathes  from  the  ear-like  or  trumpet-like  organs  issuing 


Fig.  60. — Culex  pungens :  Full-grown  larva  at  left,  pupa  at 
right — enlarged.     (Author's  illustration.) 

from  the  thorax  instead  of  from  a  respiratory  tube  at  the  other 
end  of  the  body.  The  pupa  remains  at  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  an  upright  position  but  when  disturbed  wriggles  actively  to 
the  bottom,  floating  upwards  again  in  a  very  short  time.  The 
pupa  stage  lasts  in  warm  weather  but  two  days,  at  the  expiration 
106 


Mosquitoes 

of  which  time  the  skin  splits  on  the  back  of  the  thorax  and  the 
adult  mosquito  works  itself  out,  resting  upon  the  old  pupa  skin 
until  its  wings  unfold,  and  then  flies  away.  The  duration  of  a 
single  generation  may  be  within  ten  days;  say  sixteen  hours  for 
the  egg,  seven  days  for  the  larva  and  two  days  for  the  pupa. 
This  time,  however,  may  be  indefinitely  extended  if  the  weather 
be  cool. 


THE  MOTH- FLIES 

(Family   PsycJwdidce.) 

There  are  certain  very  small,  weak  flies  which  look  like  little 
moths,  from  which  fact  they  have  been  termed  "moth-flies," 
which  are  frequently  found  upon  windows  and  upon  the  under 
surfaces  of  leaves,  and  which  have  broad  wings,  rather  thick 
antennse,  and  which  are  densely  clothed  with  hairs,  even  the 
surface  of  the  wings  being  hairy.  These  are  the  flies  of  the 
family  Psychodidas.  They  are  so  small  and  so  fragile  that  they 
are  difficult  to  preserve,  and  though  there  are  probably  very  many 
species  only  comparatively  few  have  been  described. 

The  arrangement  of  the  wing  veins  in  these  flies  differs  from 
that  of  all  other  flies,  and  possibly  represents  the  lowest  or  most 
generalized  type  in  the  Diptera,  although  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  perhaps  the  Tipulids  more  nearly  represent  the  pri- 
mordial fly. 

In  larval  habits  they  are  interesting  and  variable.  Some  of 
them  live  in  dry  cow  dung;  others  on  fallen  leaves  immersed  in 
the  water  of  pools  or  small  streams,  while  others  live  in  rapidly 
running  water,  and  others  are  found  in  rotten  potatoes.  The 
larvae  are  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  they  have  both  tracheal 
gills  and  open  spiracles,  so  that  they  can  theoretically  both  breathe 
air  and  use  the  oxygen  in  the  water. 

One  of  the  European  forms  (Pericoma  canescens)  has  been 
carefully  studied  by  Miall  and  Walker  (Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London, 
1895),  but  the  larvse  of  none  of  the  American  forms  were  known 
until  very  recently,  when  Kellogg  discovered  the  larvae  of  Peri- 
coma californiensis  in  the  streams  of  the  Sierra  Morena  Mountains 
near  Stanford  University,  California.  With  Kellogg's  larva  no 
tracheal  gills  were  found  but  they  may  have  been  retracted.  On 
the  under  side  of  the  larva  are  curious  sucking  discs,  through 
which  it  attaches  itself  to  objects  under  the  water,  a  structure 
which  seems  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the  larva  from 
108 


The   Moth-Flies 

being  carried  down  the  stream.  Tiiey  were  found  on  tiie  stones 
of  the  stream  bed,  not  usually  submerged,  but  always  at  the  very 
verge  of  the  water,  sometimes  submerged,  sometimes  above  the 
water  surfiice,  but  always  wetted  by  the  current  or  spray.  They 
look  something  like  a  sow-bug  or  pill-bug  (Oniscus)  in  shape,  but 
are  narrower.  Kellogg's  figures  and  descriptions  may  be  found 
in  Entomological  News  for  February,  1901. 

Less  than  twenty  species  have  been  described  in  the  United 
States. 


109 


THE  MIDGES 


(Family  Chironomidu.) 

The  insects  of  this  family,  commonly  known  as  "midges," 
are  small,  delicate  flies  with  simple  wing  venation  and  no  ocelli. 
The  antennae  of  the  males  of  most  genera  are  strongly  plumose, 
and  the  flies  themselves  are  frequently  seen  flying  in  swarms 
with  a  dancing  motion.     When  at  rest  the  front  legs  of  these 

flies  are  lifted  and  are  used 
as  feelers.  The  larvae  are 
mainly  aquatic,  but  some  live 
in  decomposing  matter  and  in 
soft  earth.  They  are  soft- 
skinned  and  worm-like  in 
form  and  frequently  blood- 
red  in  color.  The  aquatic 
forms  are  usually  found  in 
shallow  pools  and  streams 
and  make  larval  cases  of  silk 
and  mud  or  decomposing 
leaves;  but  some  are  found  at 
the  bottom  of  lakes  of  great 
depth.  Professor  S.  I.  Smith 
having  dredged  them  from  the 
bottom  of  Lake  Superior  at  a 
depth  of  nearly  a  thousand  feet, 
and  Packard  has  found  them 
living  in  salt  water  in  Salem 
harbor.     The  larva  of  Chiron- 


Fig.  6i . — Chironomus  sp.:  a,  d,  larvae ; 
c,  eggs.     CA/ter  Riley.) 


omus  p/umostts,  figured  herewith,  abounds  in  great  numbers  in 
the  waters  of  Chautauqua  Lake  and  other  fresh  water  lakes  of  the 
United  States.  These  larvae  form  an  important  fish  food  but  the 
family  has  no  other  economic  value. 

The  flies  abound  in  the  spring,  even  before  the  snow  has 
left  the  ground.      Dr.  Williston  has  seen   them  in  the  Rocky 


The  Midges 

Mountains  rise  up  from  the  ground  at  nigiitfall  in  the  most  in- 
credible numbers,  making  a  humming  noise  Iii<e  a  distant  water- 
fall. Many  species  are  common  to  Europe  and  North  America, 
belonging  to  the  so-called  "circumpolar  fauna."  The  eggs  of 
Chironomus  are  laid  in  the  late  evening  or  early  morning  in  a 
dark  gelatinous  mass  which  swells  up  on  touching  the  water  and 
which  is  attached  to  some  object  close  to  the  water's  edge.  The 
larvae  differ  in  form  and  habit,  but  there  are  two  types.  In  one 
there  are  four  long  anal 
tubules  which  function  as 
blood-gills,  as  in  the  fishes, 
and  the  pupae  bear  bunches 
of  long  filamentary  tracheal 
gills.  These  larvae  are  large 
and  red  and  are  called  in 
England  "blood-worms." 
The  larvae  of  the  second 
type  have  no  anal  tubules 
and  the  pupa  has  a  pair  of 
short,  breathing  trumpets, 
as  in  the  mosquitoes,  in- 
stead of  the  thread-like  tra- 
cheal gills.  Larvae  of  the 
first  type  burrow;  those  of 
the  second  type  often  live  at 
the  surface  of  the  water  and 
feed  on  weeds.  These  generalizations  are  taken  from  Miall  and 
Hammond.  One  European  species  has  been  found  to  lay  eggs 
while  yet  in  the  pupal  stage.  A  genus  of  this  family — Ceratopo- 
gon — is  composed  of  very  minute  biting  files.  The  so-called 
"punkie"  of  the  north  woods,  called  "  no-see-um  "  by  the  Maine 
Indians,  belongs  to  this  genus,  and  other  species  are  found  from 
Canada  south  to  Chili. 


Fig.  62. — Chironomuspluniosus  :  adult 
and  pupa.     (After  Riley.) 


Life  History  of  a  Midge 

(Chironomus  miniitiis.) 

The  life  history  of  no  American  species  of  this  family  has 
been  worked  out.  That  which  follows  is  taken  from  the  obser- 
vations of  Mr.  L.  H.  Taylor,  of  Leeds,  England,  as  given  in  the 


The  Midges 

work  on  Chironomus  by  the  above  mentioned  authors.  The 
larvae  are  found  in  gelatinous  tubes  attached  to  stones  in  slow 
or  swift-running  streams.  When  disturbed  they  leave  their  cases 
and  crawl  like  measuring  worms  or  swim  with  a  figure-of-eight 
motion.  The  larva  is  pale  green  in  color  and  about  seven  mm. 
long  and  has  no  anal  blood-gills.  When  about  to  pupate  the 
thorax  is  much  swollen.  The  pupae  live  in  gelatinous  cases 
attached  to  stones,  each  case  having  a  slightly  protruded  orifice 
at  either  end  so  that  the  water  flows  through  impelled  by  the 
motion  of  the  body  of  the  pupa.  The  pupa  breathes  by  means 
of  respiratory  trumpets  which  are  so  small  as  to  suggest  that  the 
insect  also  breathes  cutaneously  or  in  some  other  way.  It  is 
armed  with  strong  hooks  on  the  abdominal  segments  by  means 
of  which,  when  mature,  it  tears  its  way  through  the  case  and  rises 
to  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  this  position  the  skin  of  the 
thorax  cracks  and  the  adult  fly  emerges. 


THE  GALL-GNArS 


(Faviily  Cccidomyiidce.) 

The  minute  flies  of  this  family  are  small  delicate  flies  some- 
what resembling  mosquitoes,  but  do  not  bite.  The  antennae  are 
many-jointed,  and  are  furnished  with  whorls  of  hair.  The  wings 
have  only  a  few  longitudinal  veins  and  but  a  single  cross  vein  in 
some  genera.  The  legs  are  not  swollen,  and  the  body  and  wings 
are  clothed  with  hairs  which  are  easily  rubbed  off. 

In  this  country  these  flies  have  not  been  systematically 
studied  with  great  care. 
There  are  many  species, 
however,  and  some  of  them 
are  known  only  by  the 
work  of  their  larvas.  About 
one  hundred  species  have 
been  described  in  the  United 
States. 

The  larvae  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  habits,  but 
most  of  them  form  galls  on 
the  twigs  or  leaves  of  different  plants.  Some  live  under  bark  and 
others  (of  the  genus  Diplosis)  prey  upon  plant-lice  and  bark-lice. 
Others  still  produce  plant  deformities  of  different  kinds  which 
cannot  strictly  be  called  galls. 

The  larvae  are  small,  somewhat  flattened  maggots,  tapering 
at  each  end,  and  frequently  brightly  colored  with  some  shade  of 
red  or  yellow. 

The  pupa  is  either  naked  or  is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  silken 
cocoon. 

The  most  famous  member  of  this   group  is   the   so-called 
Hessian  fly  (Cecidomyia  destructor  Say.)     This  species  lives,  in 
"3 


Fig.  63. — Cecidomyia  trifolii. 
(After  Comstock.) 


The  Gall-Gnats 


the   larval    state,    in   stems   of   wheat,    and   annually   damages 

the  wheat  crop  of  the 
United  States  to  the  ex- 
tent of  many  millions 
of  dollars.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  the  United 
States  in  the  straw 
brought  over  for  bedding 
by  the  Hessian  troops 
during  the  War  of  the 
Revolution.  Hence  the 
popular  name.  Other 
American  species  form 
curious  galls  on  willow, 
one  of  them  for  example 


Fig.  64. — Diplosis  resinicola. 
(After  Comstock.) 


resembling  a  pine 
cone.  Another  spe- 
cies lives  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  maple 
leaves.  Still  another 
forms  a  gall  in  the 
stem  of  Chrysopsis. 
There  are  also  several 
Cecidomyiid  galls  on 
golden  rod,  sun- 
flowers and  Aster. 
The  species  of  two 
genera  have  been 
found  in  Europe  to 
give  birth  to  young 
while  in  the  larval 
state.  This  phenom- 
enon is  known  as 
paedogenesis,  but  has 
not  been  observed  in 
any  American  forms. 


(Fn 


Fig.  65. —  Diplosis  pyrivora. 
United  States  Department  Agriculture.) 


The  Gall-Gnats 


Life  History  of  a  Gall-Gnat 

(Cecidomyia  Icgumcnicola  Lint.) 

This  insect,  commonly  known  as  the  clover-seed  midge, 
occurs  throughout  a  large  part  of  the  United  States  and  breeds  in 
the  flower  heads  of  the  common  red  clover.  It  was  first  noticed 
in  New  York  State  in  1879,  but  has  since  been  found  in  most  of 
the  clover-growing  regions  of  the  country. 

The  very  minute,  long,  oval,  pale  yellowish  eggs  are  pushed 
down  by  the  female 
between  the  hairs 
which  surround  the 
seed  capsule  of  the 
yet  undeveloped  flo- 
rets. They  are  gener- 
ally deposited  singly, 
but  are  sometimes 
found  in  clusters  of 
from  two  to  five.  Af- 
ter young  larvse  hatch 
they  work  their  way 
through  the  mouth  of 
the  flower  to  the  seed. 
They  feed  upon  the 
seed,  usually  destroy- 
ing it,  and  when  full 
grown  work  their 
way  out  of  the  closed 
florets,  wriggling  vio- 
lently until  they  fall  to 
the  ground  where 
each  forms  an  oval, 
compressed,  rather 
tough  cocoon  of  fine 
silk  with  particles  of 
the  surrounding  earth 
adhering  to  the  out- 
side and  rendering  its  detection  extremely  difficult.  The  pale 
orange  pupa  remains  within  the  cocoon  about  ten  days,  after 
which  period  the  adult  fly  emerges. 


Fig.  66. — Cecidomyia  leguminicola. 
(From   United  States  Department  Agriculture. J 


The  Gall-Gnats 

There  are  two  generations  annually  in  New  York,  and  three 
in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

The  species  also  breeds  in  white  clover,  and  is  frequently  so 
numerous  as  to  destroy  the  clover-seed  crop  over  a  large  section 
of  the  country. 

The  remedy  is  a  simple  one,  and  affords  an  excellent  example 
of  the  value  of  accurate  knowledge  of  the  life  history  of  injurious 
insects.  It  is  the  custom  in  the  northern  states  to  cut  clover 
twice  in  the  season,  once  when  the  clover  is  in  full  bloom,  for 
hay  alone,  and  again  in  the  autumn  for  seed.  If  the  hay  crop  be 
cut  from  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  usual  the  first  generation 
of  the  insect  will  be  destroyed  and  the  seed  crop  in  the  autumn 
will  not  be  affected,  or  at  least  only  to  a  comparatively  slight 
extent. 


ii6 


2ilE:>2ib  E! 


Plate  XVI. 
TRUE    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Stratiomyia  discalis  (Stratiomyidae)  U.  S. 

-2.  Tabanus  trimaculatus  (Tabanidae)  Southeastern  fourth  U.  S. 

3.  Stratiomyia  norma  (Stratiomyidae)  Northeastern  fourth  U.  S. 

4.  Tipula  abdominalis  (Tipulidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S..  Can. 

5.  Tabanus  trispilus  (Tabanida;)  Northeastern  fourth  U.  S. 

6.  Stratiomyia badius (Stratiomyidae) Northeastern  U.S., Brit- Am. 

7.  Pangonia  tranquilla  (Tabanidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 

8.  Hermetia  illucens  (Stratiomyidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex.,  W.  I., 

S.  A. 

9.  Tabanus  fuscopunctatus  (Tabanids)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

10.  Caenomyia  ferruginea  (Leptidie)  Atlantic  States.  Eur. 

1 1.  Sargus  decorus  (Stratiomyidae)  N.  A. 

12.  Pedicia  albivitta  (Tipulidie)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

13.  Tabanus  bicolor  (Tabanidte)  Northeastern  U.  S. ,  Can. 

14.  Tabanus  affmis  (Tabanidae)  Northern  U.  S. ,  Brit.  Am. 

15.  Leptis  mystacea  (Leptidae)  Eastern  N.  A. 

16.  Chrysops  excitans  (Tabanidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

17.  Chrysops  hilaris  (Tabanids)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 

18.  Chrysopila  thoracica  (Leptidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

iq.  Tabanus  septentrionalis  (Tabanidae)  Northern  N.  A. 

20.  Dialysis  ruflthorax  (Leptidae)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

21.  Chrysops  fugax  (Tabanidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

22.  Chrysops  fugax  (Tabanidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

23.  Chrysopila  velutina  (Leptidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

24.  Cyrtopogon  bimacula  (Asilidae)  Northeastern  U.  S..  Brit.  Am. 

25.  Ommatius  tibialis  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

2(1.  Laphria  gilva  (Asilidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 

27.  Lampria  bicolor  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

28.  Lampria  rubriventris  (Asilidae)  Southern  U.  S. 

29.  Ceraturgus  crucialis  (Asilidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


FUNGUS  GNATS 


(Family  Mjycctophi/ida;.) 

The  flies  which  belong  to  this  group  are  known  as  the  fun- 
gus gnats,  from  the  f;ict  that  many  of  them  breed  in  fungi. 
These  insects  are  so  delicate  in  structure  that  they  are  difficult  to 
collect  and  study  and  are  not  so  well  known  as  they  should  be, 
although  nearly  a  thousand  have  been  described.  More  than  a 
hundred  species  have  been  described  from  the  United  States. 
They  are  delicate  and  as  a  rule  rather  slender  little  flies.  The 
wings  are  generally  clear,  but  sometimes  they  are  smoky  or  with 


Fig.  67. — Sciaratritici.     (After  Coquillett.) 

large  spots  as  in  those  which  belong  to  the  genera  Platyura,  Scio- 
phila  and  Mycetophila.  The  female  abdomen  is  frequently  dis- 
tended and  expanded  toward  the  tip,  as  in  Platyura  pectoralis 
Coq.  and  Asinditlum  montaniim  Roder.  With  those  species 
whose  larvae  live  in  fungi  or  decaying  wood  or  other  vegetable 
matter,  the  larvae  are  usually  slender,  cylindrical  maggots,  more  or 
less  worm-like  in  appearance.  Some  of  them  somewhat  resemble 
117 


Fungus  Gnats 

snails  and  construct  delicate  cocoons.  It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  with  some  of  the  species  the  larvae  formed  galls  on  leaves, 
as,  for  example,  one  species  was  supposed  to  belong  to  the  genus 
Sciara  which  mai<es  the  beautiful  crimson,  eye-like  spots  often 
seen  on  the  leaves  of  the  silver  maple,  but  the  larvae  in  these  spots 
are  now  thought  to  be  Cecidomyian  and  it  is  doubted  whether 
any  true  Mycetophilids  ever  make  galls.  Some  of  the  Sciaras  also 
have  the  curious  habit  when  in  the  larval  state  of  traveling  in 
great  armies  so  close  to  each  other  as  to  almost  form  one  mass. 
They  have  then  been  called  worm-snakes.  They  travel  in  a 
solid  column  several  deep  over  each  other  at  the  rate  of  about  an 
inch  a  minute.  In  Europe  they  have  from  this  habit  been  called 
the  army-worm,  but  in  this  country  the  term  army-worm  is 
applied  to  a  caterpillar.  One  of  our  American  species  of  this 
habit  has  been  reared  by  Pratt  and  proves  to  be  Sciara  fraterna. 
Some  species  live  in  the  sap  of  trees,  and  injury  to  the  bark  of  a 
maple  or  an  elm  causing  the  sap  to  flow  in  the  spring  frequently 
attracts  these  little  midges,  which  will  lay  their  eggs  there  and 
subsequently  little  maggots  will  be  found.  One  species,  known 
as  Epidapus  scabiei,  is  said  by  Hopkins  to  be  the  cause,  or  at 
least  the  transmitter,  of  the  disease  known  as  scab  among 
potatoes.  He  also  finds  that  the  same  insect  will  breed  in 
healthy  potatoes.  The  use  of  scabby  seed  potatoes  offers  favor- 
able conditions  for  the  attack  of  these  insects  as  these  are  attracted 
to  the  scabby  spots  under  which  they  breed  and  are  thus  brought 
into  contact  with  the  growing  tubers.  Another  species  feeds 
upon  ripe  apples.  One  of  the  Sciaras  has  been  called  the  yellow- 
fever  fly  in  the  southern  United  States,  since  it  made  its  appear- 
ance in  extraordinary  numbers  during  a  yellow  fever  epidemic. 
It  has,  however,  no  connection  with  the  disease.  Certain  of 
these  fungus  gnats  jump  actively  as  well  as  fly.  Sciara  iriiici 
Coq.,  figured  herewith,  in  its  larval  stage  damages  young  growing 
wheat  plants. 


THE  MARCH-FLIES 


(Family  Bibioiiidce.) 

The  flies  of  this  family  are  not  especially  interesting.  They 
are  of  medium  size  and  are  rather  thick-bodied  and  rather  hairy 
but  are  weak  fliers.  Their  wings  are  frequently  smoky.  Some 
species,  as  Scatopse,  are  very  small.  There  seems  to  be  nothing 
especially  interesting  about  the  group,  although  more  than  three 
hundred  species  are  known. 
The  larvae  are  cylindrical  and 
have  transverse  rows  of 
bristles  and  the  head,  which 
is  rarely  obvious  in  dipterous 
larvae,  shows  eyes.  They  feed 
upon  excremental  or  vegetable 
substances  and  are  said  to 
attack  the  roots  of  growing 
grass.  One  of  our  commonest 
species  is  Bibio  albipeiinis. 
This  species  sometimes  occurs 
in  enormous  numbers.  In  the 
spring  of  1891,  according  to 
Osborn,  it  abounded  in  parts 
of  Iowa  and  was  erroneously 
reported  as  doing  much  dam- 
age to  vegetation.  In  this 
form  the  wings  are  white, 
quite  contrary  to  the  general  rule  in  the  family.  Other  species 
are  of  a  deep  red  color  with  dark  wings.  The  larvae  of  some 
species  of  this  family  have  been  found  on  the  surface  of  snow. 
The  flies  of  the  genus  Scatopse  breed  in  decaying  vegetable 
material,  in  sewers,  and  in  human  excreta.  Scatopse  piilic aria  is 
common  on  our  windows  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and,  as 
it  is  an  excrement  fly,  is  a  dangerous  inhabitant  of  houses. 
119 


Fig.  68. — Bibio  albipeiinis. 
(After  Lintner.) 


THE  BLACK  FLIES  AND  BUFFALO  GNATS 


(Family    Simuliida;.) 

These  insects,  known  as  black  flies,  sand  flies  or  buffalo  gnats, 
are  small,  stout,  hump-backed,  biting  flies  with  broad  wings  and 
rather  short  legs  which  are  sometimes  speckled,  and  with  short, 
straight,  simple  antennae.     The  eyes  of  the  male  are  very  large 

and  frequently  touch  each  other, 
and  the  insect  in  this  sex  does 
not  bite.  The  family  contains 
only  the  single  genus  Simulium 
of  which  the  black  flies  of  the 
north  woods  and  the  buffalo 
gnat  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  valleys  are  well  known 
examples.  They  rival  the  mos- 
quito in  their  blood-thirsty  ten- 
dencies and  not  only  do  they 
attack  human-beings,  but  poul- 
try and  domestic  animals  are 
frequently  killed  by  them. 
There  is  one  case  on  record  in 
which  a  man  was  killed  by  in- 
numerable bites.  In  certain 
seasons  they  multiply  enor- 
mously, alight  in  thousands 
on  cattle  and  produce  death 
through  their  poisonous  bites  as  well  as  from  loss  of  blood.  Un- 
like mosquitoes  they  fly  and  bite  in  the  day  time  and  are  often 
seen  in  large  numbers  flying  in  bright  sunshine.  The  larvae  are 
aquatic  and  unlike  mosquitoes  again,  the  larvae  of  which  live  in 
stagnant  water,  Simulium  larvae  frequent  well  aerated  and  fre- 
quently swiftly  running  streams.  They  are  found  most  abundantly 
on  rocks  or  logs  so  near  the  surface  as  to  cause  a  rapid  ripple. 


Fig.  69. — Simulium  meiidionale 
(From  U.  S.  Deft.  Agr.) 


The  Black  Flies  and  Buffalo  Gnats 


On  one  occasion  in  tlie  Soulhi  tiie  buffalo  gnat  plague  was  averted 

by  thie  removal  of  a  jam  of  logs 
in  a  sluggish  bayou  over  which 
the  water  ran  shallowly  with 
sufficient  speed  to  make  a  per- 
fect breeding  place.  When  the 
logs  were  removed  and  the  old 
sluggish  current  was  resumed 
the  breeding  places  had  been 
abolished.  In  the  typical  life 
history  which  follows,  the  issu- 
ing of  the  fly  is  mentioned  but 
it  should  be  stated  here  that 
with  another  species  in  the 
southwest  Mr.  H.  G.  Hubbard 
while  watching  the  surface  of 
the  water  saw  adults  issue  in 
great  numbers  with  such  force 
and  velocity  that  as  he  ex- 
pressed it  they  appeared  as  if 
shot  out  of  a  gun. 


Fig.  70. — Simulium  invenustum. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.J 


Typical   Life  History 

(Simulium  pictipcs  Hagen.^ 

The  larvae  of  this  species  occur  abundantly  on  the  rocks  in 
the  hillside  streams  about  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  where  the  writer  'was 
familiar  with  them  as  a  boy.  The 
boys  who  bathed  in  the  streams 
in  that  region  feared  these  larvae, 
called  them  leeches  and  supposed 
that  they  would  attach  them- 
selves to  the  skin  and  suck  blood. 
They  are,  however,  perfectly 
harmless.  The  life  history  of 
the   species   has   been    carefully 

worked  out  by  Miss  R.  O.  Phillips    F'g-  71-— Simulium  invenustum,  male. 

in   an  unpublished   paper  from 


rFrom  U.  S.  Dept.  AgrJ 


The  Black  Flies  and  Buffalo  Gnats 


which  the  following  account  is  condensed.  The  adults  occur  in 
the  early  part  of  May  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  continuous 
warm  weather  in  the  spring.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  rocks 
over  which  the  water  is  flowing.  The  flies  hover  in  little  swarms 
a  foot  or  two  above  the  rock,  rapidly  flying  back  and  forth,  and 
occasionally  darting  down  and  depositing  their  eggs  beneath 
the  water  on  the  flat  surface  of  the  rock.  The  batch  of  eggs 
becomes  at  least  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter  and  is  distinctly 
observable  at  some  distance  on  account  of  the  light  yellowish 
color.  When  the  water  is  very  shallow  and  its  velocity  slight 
the  flies  sometimes  crawl  over  the  surface  of  the  rock  and  deposit 
eggs  without  flying.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  eggs  pro- 
duce larvae.     The  larvae  hatch  about  eight  days  after  the  eggs  are 

laid  and  in  this  stage  the  in- 
sect may  be  found  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  in  summer 
as  well  as  in  winter,  and  it  is 
in  this  stage  that  it  hibernates. 
The  larvae  die  in  three  or  four 
hours  when  placed  in  quiet 
water.  Fastened  to  the  rock 
by  the  anal  end  of  the  body 
they  assume  an  erect  position 
and  move  the  head  around 
occasionally  with  a  circling 
motion. 

They  may  release  themselves  and  as  they  grow  larger  they 
sometimes  allow  themselves  to  be  washed  into  deeper  water, 
holding  by  a  thread  which  they  spin  as  they  go.  The  thread  is 
spun  from  the  mouth  but  is  attached  along  the  side  of  the  body 
to  the  different  segments.  Sometimes  a  large  cluster  of  larvae 
will  cling  to  the  same  thread  which  they  can  ascend  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  do  spiders.  Not  much  food  is  taken  in  the 
winter  time.  During  the  summer  the  length  of  the  larval  life  is 
about  four  weeks,  varying  with  the  temperature  and  the  velocity 
of  the  water.  When  full  grown  the  larva  spins  its  cocoon,  firmly 
attaching  it  to  the  rock  and  also  to  adjacent  cocoons.  The  length 
of  the  pupal  stage  is  about  three  weeks.  Over-wintering  larvs 
transform  to  pupae  about  the  12th  of  April,  the  first  flies  appearing 
on  the  2d  of  May.      The  newly  issuing  fly  surrounded  by  a 


Fig.  72. — Simulium  invenustum,  male. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 


The  Black  Flies  and  Buffalo  Gnats 

bubble  of  water  quickly  arises  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and 

flies  away   instantly,  , , 

the  silky  pubescence 
keeping  it  from  get- 
ting wet.  The  first 
generation  having  ap- 
peared in  early  May, 
successive  generations 
are  produced  from 
this  time  on  during 
the  summer  and  part 
of  the  autumn.  All 
of  the  flies  captured 
from  the  first  brood  in 
one  instance  were  fe- 
males and  this  may  be 
the  rule  but  towards 
autumn  the  males 
began  to  appear  in 
greater  numbers  and 
towards  the  last  of 
August  nearly  all  of 
the  specimens  taken 
were  males.  On  Sep- 
tember 2,  1888,  the 
present  writer  cap- 
tured fifty  specimens 
of  this  fly  at  Ithaca 
and  all  were  males 
with  the  exception  of 
one.  Adults  were 
observed  on  the  wing  as  late  as  the  loth  of  October. 


Fig-  73-- 


-Simulium  omatum,  early  stages, 
(After  Riley.) 


"3 


FAMILIES  ORPHNEPHILIDy^,  BLEPHARO- 
CERIDy^  AND  RHYPHID^ 

These  three  fomilies  are  not  especially  well  represented  in 
the  fauna  of  the  United  States  and  comparatively  little  need  be 
said  about  two  of  them. 

The  OrphnephilidcTe  are  small  brownish  or  yellowish  flies 
without  bristles  or  hairs.  We  have  only  one  described  species  in 
this  country,  viz,  Orphr.ephila  tcstacea  Ruthe,  common  to  Europe 
and  North  America.  Nothing  is  known  about  the  transforma- 
tions of  any  member  of  this  family. 

The  Blepharoceridae,  however,  are  insects  of  much  greater 
interest  and  especially  on  account  of  their  curious  larvae  and  on 
account  of  an  unusual  arrangement  of  the  viens  in  the  wings 
which  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  table  of  families.  The  adult 
flies  look  somewhat  like  mosquitoes  but  do  not  bite.  The  eyes 
are  divided,  the  upper  half  containing  large  ocelli  and  the  lower 
half  small  ones.  The  larvae  are  very  peculiar  looking  objects, 
having  appparently  but  seven  segments  and  being  furnished 
with  conical  leg-like  structures  on  most  of  the  segments.  On  the 
under  side  of  the  body  is  a  row  of  circular  suckers  by  which  they 
attach  themselves  to  rocks  in  swift  running  streams.  Each  of 
the  suckers  is  surrounded  by  a  little  fringe  of  tracheal  gills  or 
there  are  tufts  of  such  gills  near  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  pupa 
is  formed  within  the  last  larval  skin  but  subsequently  the  skin  is 
cast  so  as  to  leave  the  pupa  naked.  The  pupa  also  clings  to  the 
rocks,  the  skin  of  the  back  being  hard  and  making  a  sort  of  scale 
over  the  body.  On  the  underside,  however,  it  is  delicate  and 
soft  and  furnished  with  six  suckers  by  which  it  clings  to  the  rocks 
so  firmly  that  they  can  hardly  be  removed  without  breaking 
them.  Comstock  has  watched  the  flies  issue  from  the  pupa  skins. 
The  pupae  occur  in  groups  so  as  to  form  black  patches  on  the 
rocks.  Each  one  rests  with  its  head  down  the  stream.  The  fly 
emerges  through  a  split  in  the  skin  between  the  thorax  and 
124 


Families  Orphnephilidse,  Blepharoceridae  and   Rhyphidse 

abdomen,  working  its  way  out  slowly  and  holding  itself  upright 
in  spite  of  the  swift  current.  Where  only  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of 
water  flowed  over  their  heads  flies  were  able  to  hold  to  the  pupa 
skins  with  their  hind  legs,  the  body  being  free  from  the  water. 
The  wings  then  expanded  and  they  flew  away.  Where  the  water 
was  deeper  the  flies  were  carried  down  the  stream  and  possibly 
perished.  The  commonest  species  of  the  northeastern  states  is 
Blepharocera  capitata  Loew,  which  occurs  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, in  central  New  York,  in  the  White  Mountains  and  in 
Canada. 

The  family  Rhyphidae,  the  members  of  which  have  been 
called  the  "false  crane  flies,"  is  composed  in  general  of  small 
flies  with  broadly  rounded  and  spotted  wings.  It  is  a  small 
family  and  only  two  genera  are  represented  in  this  country.  The 
early  stages  of  none  of  our  American  species  are  known  but  in 
Europe  they  are  described  as  long,  slender,  worm-like  creatures 
which  are  found  in  decaying  wood,  in  cow  dung,  in  decaying 
fruit  and  even  in  dirty  water. 


«S 


THE  SNIPE  FLIES 

(Family  LcptidcE.) 

These  are  slender,  rather  small  flies,  somewhat  resembling  the 
robber  flies,  on  account  of  their  long  legs  and  slender  bodies. 
They  have  usually  smoky  wings  and  velvety  bodies,  some  of 
them  slightly  resembling  yellow-banded  wasps.  They  are  not 
especially  numerous.  Some  of  these  flies  are  predatory  and  de- 
stroy other  insects  and  this  may  be  the  habit  of  all.  They  are 
sluggish  in  their  habits  and  are  easily  caught.  The  larvae  are 
predaceous,  and  variable  in  their  habitations.  Some  are  found  in 
water,  others  live  in  decaying  wood,  or  in  the  earth,  in  moss,  in 
dry  sand,  or  in  the  burrows  of  wood-boring  beetles.  There  is  a 
curious  resemblance  between  the  habits  of  the  species  of  the 
genus  Vermileo  and  the  well-known  ant-lions,  the  larvae  forming 
conical  pitfalls  in  the  sand  in  which  to  catch  small  insects.  Flies 
of  the  genus  Atherix  lay  their  eggs,  as  do  the  females  of  the 
Stratiomyiid  genus  Odontomyia,  in  masses  on  dried  branches 
overhanging  the  water.  The  masses  become  very  large  and 
pear-shaped  from  the  curious  fact  that  a  number  of  females  add 
their  eggs  to  the  same  mass,  frequently  dying  after  egg  laying 
and  leaving  their  bodies  attached  to  the  egg  mass.  The  larvae 
are  cylindrical  and  sometimes  bristly,  and  may  have  fleshy  ap- 
pendages resembling  prolegs  on  the  abdomen.  Atherix  has 
seven  pairs  of  these  prolegs.  The  larva  of  one  species  has  been 
found  by  Hart  in  damp  earth. 

The  families  Xylophagidae  and  Coenomyiidas  which  will  be 
found  mentioned  in  some  books  are  merged  with  the  Leptids. 
The  Xylophagids  are  rather  slender  flies  with  the  abdomen 
pointed  in  the  female  sex.  The  Coenomyiids  on  the  contrary  are 
stout,  rather  large  flies.  The  larvae  of  some  of  Xylophagids  live 
under  bark  and  prey  on  other  insects  and  the  larvae  of  Coenomyia 
live  in  the  earth  and  are  also  probably  predaceous. 
126 


The  Snipe  Flies 

Nearly  three  hundred  species  are  known,  oi  which  rather 
more  than  fifty  occur  in  the  United  States,  but  the  full  life  history 
of  none  of  our  American  forms  is  known.  Vermileo,  the  form 
whose  larva  resembles  that  of  the  ant-lion,  does  not  occur  in  the 
United  States. 


SOLDIER  FLIES 

(Family  Stratiomyiidce.) 

There  are  certain  rather  broad,  but  rather  flat-bodied  flies  of 
divers  structure,  but  separated  from  other  flies  by  the  characters 
given  in  the  table,  which  are  not  especially  remarkable  in  their 
appearance  except  in  some  aberrant  forms,  and  which  are  not 
especially  numerous  or  notable,  which  are  grouped  together  in 
this  family.  Comstock  has  called  them  the  "soldier  flies," on 
account  of  bright  colored  stripes  with  which  some  species  are 
marked.  They  are  also  dark  colored  and  metallic  and  are  not 
hairy  or  bristly.  Some  of  the  brightly  marked  ones  look  like 
Syrphus  flies  and  some  of  them  have  a  superficial  resemblance  to 
some  of  the  solitary  wasps.  The  wings  are  usually  clear,  but 
are  sometimes  smoky  or  brown.  They  are  found  generally  in 
marshy  places  on  flowers  and  vegetation,  and  their  larviE  live  in 
the  water,  in  the  earth,  in  moss,  in  decaying  wood,  and  in  ants' 
nests,  and  there  are  observations  on  record  which  seem  to  show 
that  the  larvae  of  the  curious  American  genus  Hermetia  may  live 
in  bee  hives,  and  in  the  nests  of  wild  bees.  At  all  events,  H. 
illucens  has  been  seen  hovering  about  bee  hives  and  thrusting  its 
eggs  through  cracks  in  the  hives.  The  aquatic  species  are  not  con- 
fined to  fresh  water,  but  at  least  one  is  known  to  inhabit  salt  water, 
and  one  form  lives  in  some  of  the  alkaline  lakes  of  the  western 
states. 

Some  of  the  larvae  are  carnivorous,  while  others  feed  upon 
decaying  vegetable  matter. 

The  aquatic  forms  feed  upon  very  small  aquatic  organisms. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  overlapping  layers  upon  the  under  sides  of 
the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  or  they  are  laid  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  larvae  are  elongate  pointed  and  flattened.  We 
hardly  know  enough  about  the  development  of  any  one  North 
American  form  to  draw  up  a  typical  life  history,  but  several  of 


Plate  XVII. 
TRUE    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Anthrax  fulvohirta  (Bombyliidie)  Eastern  U.  S. 

2.  Anthrax  alternata  (Bombyliidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

3.  Systoechus  vulgaris  (Bombyliida;)  Northeastern  fourth  U.  S. 

4.  Anthrax  hyponielas  (Bombyliidise)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 
R.  Exoprosopa  fasciata  (Bombyliidis)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 
b.  Bombylius  major  (BombyliidK)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

7.  Anthrax  sinuosa  (Bombyliidae)  U.  S. 

8.  Exoprosopa  caliptera  (Bombyliidse)  Western  half  U.  S. ,  Mex. 
q.  Anthrax   tegminipennis    (Bombvliida;)    Northeastern  fourth 

U.  S.,  Can. 

10.  Laphria  canis  (Asilidx)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

11.  Spogostylum  simson  (Bombyliidae)  U.  S.,  S.  A. 

12.  Dioctria  albius  (Asilidse)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

1 3.  Laphria  pubescens  (Asilidx)  Northern  U.  S. 

14.  Erax  ffistuans  (Asilidae)  N.  A.,  W.  J. 

15.  Laphria  sericea  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

16.  Dasyllis  flavicollis  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

17.  Asilus  orphne  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

18.  Deromyia  sp.  (Asilids) 

19.  Dasvllis  posticata  (Asilid^)  Atlantic  States 

20.  Asilus  sericeus  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

21.  Mallophora  orcina  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

22.  Proctacanthus  milberti  (Asilidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

23.  Mallophora  orcina  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

24.  Proctacanthus  philadelphicus  (Assilidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book, 


Soldier  Flies 

the  aquatic  and  subaquatic  species  have  been  studied  by  Hart  in 
his  interesting  investigations  of  the  entomology  of  the  Illinois 
River.  He  finds  that  Stratiomyia  seems  to  prefer  the  shore  and 
Odontomyia  the  water.  The  larvae  are  large,  opaque,  greenish 
brown  or  gray,  obscurely  striped,  and  when  in  the  water  are 
found  upon  vegetation  near  the  surface  or  floating  about,  and 
when  on  shore  crawling  about  over  the  mud  and  in  the  green 
scum  so  often  found  on  wet  banks.  The  pupa  is  formed  within 
the  larval  skin,  but  occupies  only  the  head-end,  the  remainder  of 
the  skin  being  filled  with  air  which  causes  the  pupa  to  float  at 
the  surface  of  the  water.  When  the  fly  is  ready  to  emerge  the 
larval  skin  splits  transversally  on  the  fourth  segment  and  the  fly 
emerges  while  the  case  is  floating  on  the  water  or  resting  on  the 
shore.  Hibernating  larvae  and  pupae  are  found  in  large  numbers 
on  loose  drift  on  the  shore,  emerging,  in  Illinois,  in  early  sum- 
mer. Hart  thinks  there  are  two  generations  annually.  He 
watched  the  egg-laying  of  Odontomyia  cincta  and  O.  vertebrata. 
They  chose  dead  branches  in  the  water,  reeds  and  the  stems  of 
various  plants.  The  female  generally  stood  with  the  head  down- 
wards, and  the  long  and  narrow  eggs  were  placed  in  an  irregular 
oval  mass  to  the  number  of  several  hundred  closely  laid  with 
their  tapering  ends  inserted  between  the  ends  of  those  next  to 
them. 

The  larvae  and  pupae  are  frequently  parasitized  by  certain 
Chalcis  flies  (Smicra  rufofemorala  and  S.  microgaster.)  Hart 
made  an  extremely  interesting  observation  when  he  found  the 
latter  parasite  mutilating  with  its  jaws  an  egg  mass  of  one  of  these 
flies.  I  know  of  no  observation  parallel  to  this.  The  eggs  above 
referred  to  were  laid  June  ist,  and  hatched  in  ten  days.  The 
stomachs  of  the  larvae  were  found  to  contain  mud  for  the  most 
part,  with  a  little  vegetable  matter,  and  here  and  there  a  diatom. 

About  one  thousand  species  of  Stratiomyiidae  have  been 
described,  of  which  about  two  hundred  are  found  in  North 
America. 


129 


FAMILY  ACANTHOMERID/E 

This  is  a  small  and  relatively  unimportant  family  of  flies  of 
which  but  a  single  genus  and  half  a  dozen  species  are  represented 
in  North  America  and  all  of  these  are  southern  forms.  They 
include  some  of  the  largest  flies  known  and  resemble  the  gad- 
flies and  bot-flies  more  than  the  flies  of  any  other  family  in 
general  appearance. 


130 


THE  GAD-FLIES  OR  HORSE-FLIES 

(Family   Tabaiiidce.) 


The  insects  of  this  important  family  are  known  as  gad-flies, 
horse-flies  or  deer-flies.  To  this  group  belong  the  active,  strong- 
flying  creatures  which  annoy  horses  to  such  an  extent  when  one 
is  driving  along  a  wooded  road,  especially  in  pine  woods,  and 
also  the  smaller  yellowish  or  greenish  flies  which  annoy  forest 
animals,  and  which  bite  human  beings  when  in  the  woods.  The 
proboscis  of  all  of  the  flies  of  this  family  is  in  the  female  sex 
adapted  for  piercing  and  sucking,  the  males,  as  in  all  of  the  blood- 
sucking flies,  including  the  mosquitoes,  being  harmless,  and  the 
proboscis  not  adapted  for  piercing  the  skin  of  mammals.  The 
bites  do  not  ap- 
pear to  be  as 
painful  as  those 
of  mosquitoes  or 
of  black  flies, 
and  apparently 
no  poison  is  in- 
jected, but  any 
one  of  these  flies 
may  be  responsi- 
ble for  the  trans- 
fer of  the  bacillus 
of  anthrax  or 
"malignant  pus- 
tule," as  it  is 
called.  The 

adults  are  great 
water    drinkers, 

and  are  usually  most  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  inland  ponds 

and  streams.     This  has  suggested  to  Porchinsky,  the   Russian 

entomologist,  the  desirability  of  coating  such  ponds  with  kerosene, 

'3' 


Fig.  74. — Chrysops  fugax.     (After  Osborn.) 


The  Gad-Flies  or  Horse-Flies 

and  his  experiments  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  great  numbers 
of  Tabanids. 

The  larvse  of  the  Tabanidas  live  in  the  earth  or  in  water  and 
are  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  soft-bodied  insects  and  water 
snails.  The  spindle-shaped  brown  or  black  eggs  are  deposited 
in  summer  in  groups  attached  to  the  leaves  or  stems  of  herbage. 
The  gad-flies  vary  greatly  in  color  and  size,  and  the  smaller  ones 
of  the  genus  C/itysops,  sometimes  called  "deer  flies,"  are  fre- 
quently quite  small  and  colored  with  yellow  or  green.  The 
larger  ones  vary  through  gray  and  brown  to  black.  Our  largest 
gad-fly  is  Tabanns  Americauiis  Forst.,  which  is  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  long,  and  has  a  wing-spread  of  two  and  one-half  inches. 
It  inhabits  the  Southern  States.  About  1,500  species  are  known, 
and  perhaps  200  occur  in  this  country. 


Typical  Life  History  of  a  Gad-Fiy 

(Tabanus   a  trains   Fab.^ 

This  is  one  of  the  common  large  black  horse-flies  which  has 
a  very  wide  distribution  in  the  United  States.     Its  larvae  have  been 

studied  by  Walsh, 
Riley  and  Hart.  Hart 
has  found  the  egg 
masses  in  July  on  the 
dry  bark  of  a  stick 
projecting  from  the 
water.  From  these 
eggs  larvae  hatched 
August  4th.  Larvae 
of  this  species  were 
found  commonly  in 
water,  among  vege- 
tation and  in  the  sand 
of  the  sandy  shores 
of  the  Illinois  River. 
Pupae  may  be  found 
in  the  early  summer,  and  the  adults  appear  from  May  to  July, 
living  all  through  the  summer.  The  species  is  apparently 
single-brooded,  that  is  to  say,  has  but  one  generation  annually, 


Fig.  75. — Tabanus  atratus  :  a,  larva ;  li,  pupa ; 
c,  adult.     (After  Riley.) 


The  Gad-Flies  or  Horse-FIies 

and  hibernates  in  the  larval  stage,  the  adults  mainly  emerging  in 
July  after  a  short  pupal  period,  the  eggs  being  laid  without  delay 
and  producing  larvae  a  week  later.  The  egg  is  about  2.5  mm. 
long,  with  a  diameter  of  .4  mm.,  dark-brown,  sub-cylindrical, 
more  or  less  tapering  at  the  end.  As  they  are  laid  in  masses  they 
point  obliquely  upwards,  and  are  stuck  in  four  or  five  tiers,  one 
above  the  other,  and  all  gummed  together  in  a  firm  mass.  The 
larva  is  shining  and  of  a  transparent,  whitish  color,  with  a 
greenish  tinge,  marked  with  conspicuous  dark-brown  or  gold- 
green  irregular  bands.  The  egg  is  parasitized  by  the  little 
Hymenopterous  insect  known  as  Phanurus  tabanivorus  Ashm. 


133 


THE  SMALL-HEADED  FLIES  AND   THE 
TANGLE-VEINED  FLIES 

(Families  Acrocerida  and  Nemestrinidce.) 

The  Acrocerid  flies,  which  have  been  called  the  "small- 
headed  "  flies  by  Comstock  and  which  in  some  books  are  known 
under  the  family  name  of  Cyrtidae,  are  of  medium  size  and  with 
a  strongly  convex  thorax  so  as  to  appear  hump-backed.  The 
head  is  very  small  and  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  eyes.  Both 
the  flies  of  this  fsmnily  and  of  the  Nemestrinidse  would  be  described 
as  little  fat  flies  from  their  stout  bodies.  The  Acrocerids  are 
sometimes  of  brilliant  metallic  colors  and  are  rather  well  repre- 
sented in  North  America  since  we  have  representatives  of  ten 
genera  comprising  more  than  thirty  species.  The  flies  of  the 
genus  Pterodontia,  of  which  one  species  (P.  analis)  occurs  in  our 
Southern  States,  are  of  very  extraordinary  form.  They  look  like 
minute  inflated  bladders,  the  head  being  extremely  small.  The 
larvae  of  the  small-headed  flies  are  chiefly  parasitic,  living  in 
spiders  or  in  their  cocoons.  In  Europe  one  species  lives  in  the 
body  of  a  spider,  leavirig  it  to  pupate,  while  in  this  country 
Emerton  has  found  the  larva  of  one  of  these  flies  living  in  the 
webs  of  a  common  spider,  presumably  having  eaten  the  spider 
itself. 

The  flies  of  the  family  Nemestrinidas  resemble  somewhat  in 
general  appearance  certain  wild  bees  or  the  bee-flies  of  the  family 
Bombyliida.  Their  mouth  parts  are  frequently  of  great  length 
and  they  are  used  in  gathering  nectar  from  the  flowers.  They 
are  rare  in  the  United  States,  only  four  species  being  known  to 
occur  here.  The  life  history  of  none  of  them  has  been  worked 
out.  One  of  the  European  species  of  the  genus  Hirmoneura  is  in 
its  early  stages  parasitic  in  a  beetle  larva.  The  parent  fly  lays 
her  eggs  in  the  burrows  of  some  wood-boring  insect.  When 
the  larvae  hatch  they  come  to  the  surface  of  the  log  in  which  they 
134 


The  Small-Headed  Flies  and  the  Tangle-Veined  Flies 

were  born,  tilt  themselves  upwards  and  are  blown  away  by  the 
wind,  falling  to  the  ground  and  entering  the  bodies  of  the  white 
grubs  upon  which  they  feed,  or  they  may  attach  themselves  to 
the  bodies  of  the  beetles  and  so  be  carried  into  the  ground  when 
the  female  enters  to  deposit  her  eggs. 


I3S 


FAMILIES  MYDAIDy^  AND  APIOCERIDy^ 

The  flies  of  the  family  Mydaidae,  for  which  there  is  no  other 
popular  name  than  the  "Mydas-flies,"  are  large  and  rather  slender 
forms,  frequently  black  with  yellow  or  red  bands  and  with  smoky 
wings.  They  much  resemble  the  robber-flies  of  the  family  Asili- 
dse,  to  which  they  are  rather  closely  related.  They  are  quite 
abundant  in  this  country,  though  rare  elsewhere  in  the  world. 
The  flies  are  predatory  like  the  robber-flies  and  feed  upon  other 
insects.  The  early  stages  are  known  in  only  a  few  species. 
The  larva  of  Mydas  fulvipes  Walsh  lives  in  decaying  sycamore 
trees  and  is  probably  predatory  on  other  insects  living  in  such 
locations.  This  larva  is  nearly  two  inches  long.  Other  species 
are  said  to  be  predaceous  in  the  larval  stage  and  on  the  iarvas  of 
the  gigantic  long-horned  beetles  of  the  genus  Prionus,  which  are 
generally  found  in  dying  or  dead  trees  and  usually  in  the  roots. 
The  remarkable  species  known  as  Mydas  iiileipeimis  Loew,  which 
occurs  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  has  dark  orange-yellow  wings 
of  the  same  shade  as  those  of  the  so-called  tarantula-killer  (a  very 
large  wasp  known  as  Pepsi's  formosa).  This  is  obviously  a  case 
of  aggressive  or  protective  mimicry,  and  the  same  phenomenon 
is  seen  with  some  of  the  slender  black  and  yellow-banded  flies  of 
this  family,  which  look  like  Scoliid  wasps. 

The  flies  of  the  family  Apioceridae  also  look  something  like 
the  robber  flies,  but  our  species  are  all  western.  They  are  rather 
large  and  slender;  some  rest  on  the  ground  and  others  hover  over 
flowers  like  humming-birds.  The  early  stages  and  transfor- 
mations are  not  known. 


136 


THE  BEE-FLIES 


(Family  Bombyliidce.) 

The  handsome,  stout-bodied,  active  flies  of  this  family  are 
commonly  known  as  "bee-flies"  from  their  superficial  resem- 
blance to  bees.  There  are  over  1,400  species  known.  They 
usually  have  spotted  or  banded  wings  and  their  bodies  are 
clothed  with  hair.  They  poise  in  the  air  in  their  flight  and  are 
most  frequently  found  in  sunny  openings  in  the  woods.  They  are 
distinguished  from  allied  flies  by  the  characters  mentioned,  by 
their  venation,  slender  legs,  small,  close  three-jointed  antennae  and 
rather  long  proboscis.  They  are  distinctively  flower-flies,  fre- 
quenting blossoms  and  feeding  upon  the  pollen  and  nectar  which 
they  are  able  to  reach  with  their  long  beak.     Some  of  them  some- 


\       / 


Fig.  76. — Anthrax  Lypomelas. 


what  resemble  the  gad-flies  of  the  genus  Chrysops,  and  others, 
like  Systrophns,  have  a  slender  abdomen  swollen  towards  the  tip 
and  look  like  mud-dauber  wasps.  Their  larval  habits  are  ex- 
tremely interesting  and  they  are  parasitic  upon  wild  bees  and  in 
the  egg-cases  of  grasshoppers  as  well  as  upon  certain  caterpillars. 
On  the  whole  they  may  be  termed  beneficial  insects. 
137 


The  Bee-Flies 


Typical  Life  History  of  a  Bee- Fly 

( Systcechus  areas  O.  S.) 

This  species  is  a  Western  form  and  is  parasitic  in  the  egg- 
cases  of  the  so-called  Roclcy  Mountain  Locust  or  Western  Grass- 
hopper. It  is  unfortunate  that  the  life  history  of  no  good  repre- 
sentative of  the  Eastern  species  in  some  one  of  the  other  genera 
which  may  be  supposed  to  live  in  the  nests  of  wild  bees  has  been 

worked  out.     Here  is 
a  field  for  some  intel- 
ligent Eastern  worker. 
^^        \I>        W        ^  The  eggs  of  the  pres- 

j'y       \      ^^^      B     j^^  ^"^  species  have  not 

/w^        ^^^^^m^sJ  ^'^'^  been  observed  but  the 

X  ^l^^^^P^  larvae  are  found  in  the 

egg-pods  of  the  grass- 
hopper or  near  them 
and  of  different  sizes 
during  most  of  the 
year.  The  larvae  be- 
gin to  transform  to 
the  pupa  state  early 
in  the  summer  and  the  pupa  pushes  itself  half-way  out  of  the 
ground  in  order  to  disclose  the  fly.  Flies  continue  to  issue  dur- 
ing the  summer.  Normally  there  is  but  one  generation  annually 
but  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  retardation  and  sometimes  the 
larvae  remain  over  unchanged  until  the  second  year.  The  larva 
is  a  stout,  plump,  curved,  grub-like 
looking  creature  with  an  opaque 
whitish  color  with  small  dark-brown 
head.  The  pupa  looks  something  like 
the  pupa  of  a  Lepidopterous  insect 
but  bears  many  spines  on  the  head 
and  thorax  and  the  dorsal  ridges  of 
the  abdominal  segments  also  bear  rows  of  spines  while  other 
portions  of  the  body  carry  soft  dark  hairs. 


Fig.  77. — Systcechus  oreas.     (After  Riley.) 


Fig.  78. — S.  oreas,  pupa. 
(After  Riley.) 


«38 


THE  IVINDO IV- FLIES  AND   THE 
STILETTO-FLIES 

(Families  Scenopinida  and  Therevidce.) 

The  Scenopinid  flies,  which  Comstock  called  the  window- 
flies  for  the  reason  that  they  are  quite  commonly  seen  upon  the 
windows  of  houses,  are  small,  active,  shining  black  flies  of  which 
we  have  a  half-dozen  species  in  North  America,  the  commonest 
being  Scenopinus  fenestralis  Linn.,  which  is  common  to  both 
Europe  and  North  America.  Its  specific  name,  fenestralis,  is  due 
»to  its  window-loving  habit.  The  larvas  of  these  flies  resemble 
those  of  the  following 
family,  and  are  long  and 
very  slender,  white  in  color 
and  with  apparently  many 
joints  to  the  body.  They 
are  frequently  found  under 
carpets  and  in  decaying 
wood;  also  in  woolen 
blankets,  and  Riley  has 
stated  that  he  found  one 
in   human   expectoration.  „.  „      '.      ,      .   ,■  '^^y,    n   •.,  , 

•^  rig.  79. — ocenopinus  fenestralis.  ( After  Smtth.) 

This,  however,  was  prob- 
ably accidental.  The  manager  of  a  storage  warehouse  noticed 
many  of  these  slender,  white  larvae  under  carpets  sent  in  by  his 
customers  for  storage.  He  was  worried  at  their  number  since  he 
supposed  that  their  presence  might  indicate  the  advent  of  some 
new  kind  of  carpet  moth.  He  was  assured,  however,  that  they 
were  considered  as  predatory  in  habit,  and  that  they  feed  upon 
clothes  moths  and  other  insects  found  in  such  places,  such  as 
book-lice.  Nowhere,  however,  does  there  appear  to  be  any  record 
of  any  definite  observations  on  this  point.  One  observer  tells  me 
that  he  tried  to  decide  this  question,  but  that  the  insect  intended  for 
139 


The   Window    Flies   and   the   Stiletto   Flies 

prey  turned  out  to  be  more  aggressive  and  ate  up  the  Scenopinus 
larva.  They  are  apparently  always  especially  abundant,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Mr.  Chittenden,  in  the  sweepings  in  feed  stores  and 
the  flies  are  always  to  be  found  around  the  windows  in  such 
establishments.  The  probability  is  very  strong  that  they  feed 
upon  such  small,  soft-bodied  insects  as  flour-mites  and  book-lice. 
Mr.  Pergande  tells  me  that  he  has  seen  them  eat  the  pupae  of  one 
of  the  little  stored-grain  beetles  (Silvanus  surinamensis)  and  also 
disabled  house-flies  which  he  had  offered  them,  as  well  as  their 
comrades  of  their  own  species. 

The  family  Therevidse  comprises  a  group  of  rather  small  and 
rather  slender  flies,  frequently  of  variegated  color,  and  looking 
something  like  robber-flies.  They  have  been  called  stiletto-flies. 
The  flies  themselves  prey  upon  other  insects,  principally  other 
flies.  They  are  not  as  active  as  the  true  robber-flies,  nor  are  they  as 
strong,  and  as  a  result  they  choose  weaker  prey  and  have  the  habit 
of  lying  in  wait  upon  leaves  and  bushes  and  even  upon  the 
ground  for  their  prey  to  come  near  them  instead  of  flying  about 
actively  in  search  of  it  as  do  the  robber-flies.  Their  larvae  are 
very  curious  and  are  found  in  rotting  wood  or  in  earth  which  is 
full  of  vegetable  mold,  and  seem  to  feed  upon  both  decaying 
animal  and  vegetable  matter.  They  have  been  found  feeding 
upon  dead  caterpillars  and  pupae.  They  are  very  long  and 
slender,  and  have  apparently  twenty  segments  to  the  body  in- 
cluding the  head.  This  appearance,  however,  is  deceptive,  and 
is  due  to  a  seeming  division  of  the  anterior  segments. 


.'J  m^Jzi.'ji 


Plate  XVIII. 
TRUE    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Erax  maculatus  (Asiiidas)  Southern  U.  S.,  Cent.  Am.,  S.  A. 

2.  Erax  rutlbarbis  (Asilidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

1.  Mallophora  fautrix  (Asilidie)  Southeastern  U.  S.,  Mex. 

4.  Deromyia  ternatus  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S.,  W.  I. 

s.  Proctacanthus  rufus  (Asilidae)  Atlantic  States 

6.  Erax  rutibarbis  (Asilidce)  Eastern  U.  S. 

7.  Promachus  bastardii  (Asilidje)  Eastern  U.  S. 

8.  Promachus  vertebratus  (Asilidie)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

9.  Midas  luteipennis  (Mydaidae)  Southwestern  U  S. 
10.  Systoechus  solitus  (Bombyliidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 
n.  Dasyllis  thoracica  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.  S.,  W.  I. 
12.  Uasyllis  sacrator  (Asilidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 
I ;.  Anastc^chus  nitidulus  (Bombyliids)  U.  S.,  Eur. 

14.  Spogostylum  pluto  (Bombyliidae)  U.  S. ,  Can. 

1=,.  Anthrax  ceyx  (Bombyliidse)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

16.  Eclimus  funestus  (Bombyliidae)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

17.  Anthrax  alcyon  (Bombyliidae)  Western  half  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

18.  Exoprosopa  fascipennis  (Bombyliidae)  Eastern  U.  S.,  W.  I. 

19.  Bombylius  pygmaeus  (Bomhyliid^)  Eastern  U.  S..  Can. 

20.  Exoprosopa  decora  (Bombyliidae)  Middle  U.  S. 

21.  Lepidophora  lepidocera  (Bombyliids)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

22.  Bombylius  varius  (Bombyliids)  Northeastern  U.  S. 

23.  Eulonchus  smaragdinus  (Acrocoridae)  Cal. 

24.  Toxophora  amphitea  (Bombyliidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

25.  Anthrax  fulviana  (Bombyliidae)  U.  S. 

26.  Sparnopolius  fulvus  (Bombyliidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

27.  Psilocephala  haemorrhoidalis  (Therevidae)  U.  S.,  Can. 

28.  Thereva  frontalis  (Therevid^)  Northeastern  fourth  U.  S. 

29.  Spogostylum  analis  (Bombyliidae)  U.  S.,  Can. 

30.  Neocota  weedii  (Empidae)  Miss. 

31.  Rhamphomyia  rustica  (Empidae)  Northeastern  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Boo; 


THE  ROBBER- FLIES 

(Family    AsilidcB.) 


The  strong,  hairy,  active,  predatory  flies,  known  as  robber- 
flies,  form  this  group.  They  are  very  numerous  and  are  always 
conspicuous,  flying  with  a  darting  motion  and  preying  upon 
many  different  kinds  of  insects.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  rather 
slender,  but  extremely  strong,  and  are  furnished  with  a  large, 
tapering,  hard  beak,  enclosing  a  sharp  lancet  which  is  thrust  out 
and  cuts  a  severe  wound  in  the  body  of 
the  insect  captured.  The  tip  of  the  beak 
is  bearded  with  stiff  bristles  which  hold 
it  securely  in  the  wound  into  which  it  is 
crowded.  Fitch  says,  "These  flies  are 
inhuman  murderers.  They  are  savages 
of  the  insect  world,  putting  their  captives 
to  death  with  merciless  cruelty.  Their 
large  eyes,  divided  into  such  a  multitude 
of  facets,  probably  give  them  the  most 
acute  and  accurate  vision  for  espying  and 
seizing  their  prey;  and  their  long,  stout 
legs,  their  bearded  and  bristly  head,  their  whole  aspect  indicates 
them  to  be  of  a  predatory  and  ferocious  character.  Like  the 
hawk,  they  swoop  upon  their  prey,  and  grasping  it  securely  be- 
tween their  forefeet  they  violently  bear  it  away."  Nearly  all  of 
their  victims  are  captured  on  the  wing,  and  any  flying  insect  is 
liable  to  be  caught  by  them — other  flies,  bees,  beetles,  moths, 
butterflies,  grasshoppers,  and  even  members  of  their  own  spe- 
cies, so  that  they  are  true  cannibals.  Just  as  with  the  praying 
Mantis,  or  rearhorse,  the  female  frequently  resents  the  caresses  of 
the  male,  and  grasps  him  and  eats  him.  They  will  also  feed 
upon  caterpillars,  but  rarely.  Persons  engaged  in  bee  culture 
especially  fear  these  robber-flies,  which  are  known  rather  gener- 
ally in  this  country  as  bee-killers.     One  of  Dr.   Fitch's  corre- 


Fig.  So. — Enax  basterdi. 
(After  Riley.) 


The  Robber-Flies 

spondents  sent  in  an  interesting  account  of  the  damage  done  to 
ills  apiary.  The  robber-fly  captured  bees  by  malting  rapid 
dashes  catching  them  on  the  wing,  then  wrapping  its  legs  about 
the  bee,  and  pressing  it  tightly  to  its  own  body  it  immediately 
sought  a  bush  or  tall  weed  upon  which  to  alight  and  devour  its 
prey,  piercing  a  hole  in  the  body  and  sucking  out  the  fluids  and 
soft  internal  viscera,  leaving  only  the  hard  outer  skin.  Upon  the 
ground  beneath  some  favorable  perch  for  the  fly  near  the  apiary 
hundreds  of  these  shells  of  bees  were  found  accumulated  in  a 
single  day.  The  correspondent  thought  that  it  was  through  the 
work  of  the  robber  flies  that  during  certain  seasons  in  a  bee  rais- 
ing region  in  New  York  not  a  single 
hive  threw  off  a  swarm.  The  beak 
of  a  robber-fly  is  so  strong  that  it 
can  pierce  the  skin  of  a  human  being, 
but  fortunately  none  of  these  creatures 
has  yet  acquired  the  habit  of  feeding 
upon  warm-blooded  animals. 

^  .    ,.  Some  robber-flies  are  very  delicate 

Fig.  8i.— Erax   apicahs.  ,      ,       .  •       ,       ^  ,  <■ 

(After  comstock.)  3"^  slcnder,  as  m  Leptogaster,  some  of 
them  being  almost  as  slender  as  midges, 
upon  which  they  probably  feed,  and  looking  half  starved,  in 
spite  of  their  voracity.  The  colors  of  the  robber  flies  are  variable, 
but  nearly  all  are  very  hairy  or  bristly  or  spiny.  In  this  family 
some  good  cases  of  what  is  called  "  aggressive  mimicry  "  are  seen, 
aggressive  mimicry  meaning  a  resemblance  of  a  predatory  insect 
to  the  insects  upon  which  it  feeds,  thus  facilitating  the  capture 
of  its  prey.  We  should  not  fear  grizzly  bears  if  they  looked  like 
harmless,  peaceable  human  beings.  Thus  the  robber-fly  known 
as  Dcromyia  anniilnia  Bigot,  looks  like  the  common  wasp 
Polistes  metricits  Say;  while  some  of  the  flies  of  the  genera  Dasyl- 
lis  and  Mallophora  resemble  bumblebees.  In  some  of  the  latter 
the  hind  shanks  are  modified  so  as  to  look  very  much  like  the 
pollen-bearing  hind  legs  of  the  bumblebees.  This  curious  struc- 
tural modification  can  be  of  no  service  to  the  fly  except  in  in- 
creasing its  resemblance  to  the  bees.  Then  also,  as  another 
illustration,  one  of  the  robber-flies  of  the  genus  Laphria  resem- 
bles a  big  wasp  of  the  genus  Vespa. 

The  larvae  of  the  robber-flies  much  resemble  the  larvae  of  the 
gad-flies,  although  the  adults  are  so  widely  different.     They  live 
142 


The  Robber-Flies 

in  the  earth,  and  in  decaying  wood,  and  prey  upon  the  larvae  of 
wood-boring  beetles.  In  the  ground  they  have  been  known  to 
feed  upon  the  eggs  of  grasshoppers.  Harris  has  described  the 
early  stages  of  one  species  (Asilus  sericeits)  which  he  thought 
fed  in  the  larval  stage  upon  the  roots  of  rhubarb.  Harris  was 
seldom  mistaken,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  as  a  rule  the  larvse  are 
carnivorous.  The  pupae  are  bristly,  and  have  the  head  and  the 
segments  of  the  abdomen  provided  with  spines  which  assist  them 
in  making  their  way  out  of  the  ground  or  the  decaying  logs 
which  they  inhabit. 

The  group  is  a  very  large  one  and  comprises  about  three 
thousand  described  species,  of  which  four  hundred  or  more  in- 
habit this  country.  The  detailed  life  history  of  some  robber-fly 
is  a  great  desideratum. 


143 


THE  DANCE-FLIES  AND   THE 
LONG-LEGGED  FLIES 

(Families  Empidida  and  DolicJwpodida.) 

The  flies  of  the  family  Empididje  are  rather  slender,  sordid, 
uninteresting-looking  creatures,  usually  of  small  size.  They  are 
sometimes  called  dance-flies,  because  they  are  often  seen  in 
swarms  in  the  woods  flying  up  and  down  with  a  dance-like 
movement.  By  "dance-like"  is  not  meant  the  slow,  gliding 
movement  of  modern  waltz,  but  the  robust  up  and  down  back- 
woods jig  movement.  It  is  a  very  large  family  comprising  more 
than  eleven  hundred  species.  They  resemble  the  robber-flies 
somewhat  in  form  and  also  in  habits  since  they  are  predatory  and 
capture  other  insects.  Some  of  them  have  the  curious  and  as  yet 
unexplained  habit  of  carrying  little  silken  webs  with  them  when 
they  fly,  although  no  one  really  knows  how  they  spin  these  webs 
or  where  they  get  them.  Their  use  has  also  been  a  mooted  point, 
but  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  act  as  parachutes  or  aid  in  the 
capture  of  their  prey. 

Aldrich  has  studied  what  is  probably  this  same  phenomenon. 
He  finds  that  the  males  of  an  Empis  carry  little  oval  masses  larger 
than  themselves,  which  are  really  not  composed  of  silk,  but  of 
bubbles  of  a  viscid  substance.  The  purpose  of  this  structure  is  to 
attract  the  female.  Aldrich  says,  "When  numerous  males  were 
flying  up  and  down  the  road  it  happened  several  times  that  a 
female  was  seen  to  approach  them  from  some  chokecherry  blos- 
soms nearby.  The  males  immediately  gathered  in  their  path  and 
she  with  little  hesitation  selected  for  a  mate  the  one  with  the 
largest  balloon,  taking  a  position  upon  his  back  *  *  *  The  pair 
would  settle  down  toward  the  ground,  select  a  quiet  spot  *  *  * 
here  she  would  continue  to  hold  the  male  beneath  her  for  a  little 
time.  The  male  meanwhile  would  be  rolling  the  balloon  about 
in  a  variety  of  positions,  juggling  with  it,  one  might  almost  say. 
After  the  male  and  female  parted  company  the  male  immediately 
144 


The  Dance-Flies  and  the  Long-Legged  Flies 

dropped  the  balloon  upon  the  ground  and  it  was  greedily  seized 
by  ants."  it  seems  probable  that  this  observation  by  Professor 
Aldrich  will  explain  all  of  the  cases  in  which  dance-flies  are  seen 
to  carry  such  structures. 

Many  of  the  species  do  not  capture  their  prey  by  flight,  but 
run  rapidly  about  on  the  ground  catching  other  insects  with  their 
front  legs.  The  female,  as  in  certain  other  predatory  groups 
which  we  have  mentioned  or  will  mention,  resents  the  approaches 
of  the  male,  and  if  he  be  incautious  seizes  him  and  dispatches  him 
at  once.  The  only  time  at  which  he  can  with  safety  make  his 
advances  is  when  she  is  busy  eating  some  insect. 

The  larvae  of  the  dance-flies  are  cylindrical,  and  live  in  the 
earth  under  leaves  and  in  decaying  vegetation.  They  are  said  to 
be  probably  carnivorous.  One  species  was  reared,  however, 
from  human  faeces  in  the  course  of  certain  investigations  made  by 
the  writer  on  the  subject  of  the  flies  which  may  carry  the  germs 
of  tpyhoid  fever,  but  of  course  they  may  have  been  preying  upon 
other  insects  which  were  feeding  in  this  substance.  The  pupje 
are  said  to  be  free  and  to  possess  two  points  at  the  front  end. 

The  Dolichopodid  flies  are  rather  small  and  rather  slender 
species,  usually  greenish  or  bluish  in  color  and  more  or  less 
metaUic.  Their  wings  are  clear,  or  they  may  be  dusky  or  ob- 
scurely banded.  They  possess  long  legs,  from  which  fact  they 
are  called  by  Comstock  "the  long-legged  flies,"  which,  however, 
does  not  seem  to  be  a  good  popular  term,  since  there  are  other 
flies  with  much  longer  legs.  Just  as  with  the  dance-flies,  these 
creatures  are  predatory  and  capture  small  flies  of  other  groups, 
and  even  soft-bodied  worms.  They  are  found  in  damp  places 
upon  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  some  of  them  are  able  to 
run  rapidly  over  the  water.  The  proboscis  is  short  and  not  as 
strong  as  with  the  robber-flies.  It  is  a  large  group,  and  about 
twelve  hundred  species  are  known.  Many  forms  occur  in  this 
country.  With  none  of  the  species,  however,  has  a  good  full 
life  history  been  studied  out.  The  larvae  live  in  the  earth  or  in 
decaying  vegetable  matter;  some  are  found  under  the  bark  of 
trees  or  in  flowing  sap.  They  form  a  cocoon  and  the  pupa  has 
two  long  breathing  tubes  on  the  back  of  the  thorax. 


MS 


THE  SPEAR-IVINGED  FLIES 

(Family  LoncJwpterida.) 

The  flies  which  belong  to  this  group  have  not  the  slightest 
general  interest,  but  they  are  structurally  very  different  from 
other  flies,  showing  even  more  differences  than  are  necessary  to 
the  establishment  of  the  group  as  a  separate  family.  They  are  very 
minute  creatures,  some  of  them  being  only  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  they  are  also  slender.  But  two  species  are  known 
in  this  country,  both  belonging  to  the  genus  Lonchoptera,  and 
both  occurring  also  in  Europe.  They  are  common  all  through 
the  summer  in  damp,  grassy  places,  as  on  the  banks  of  well- 
shaded  streams.  Their  larvae  apparently  undergo  very  interesting 
transformations,  but  no  studies  have  been  made  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe — the  knowledge  of  entomologists  dated  back  to 
some  incomplete  observations  made  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  as  long 
ago  as  1862 — until  within  the  past  year  de  Meijere  of  Holland 
has  described,  with  figures,  the  early  stages  of  Lonchoptera  liitea. 
The  larvas  live  under  leaves  and  decaying  vegetable  matter  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground, and  have  the  peculiar  habit  of  transforming 
to  what  may  be  termed  a  semi-pupa  or  a  wingless  maggot-like 
creature  within  the  last  larval  skin,  subsequently  transforming  to 
a  true  pupa.  The  careful  working  out  of  the  life  history  of  these 
flies  ought  not  to  be  difficult,  and  such  careful  work  is  decidedly 
needed. 


146 


THE  HUMP-BACKED  FLIES 

(Family  Pliorida:.) 

The  little  dark  flies  of  this  fliimily  have  no  popular  name, 
unless  we  adopt  that  of  Comstock,  "the  hump-backed  flies," 
which  is  characteristic  enough.  They  may  easily  be  recognized 
by  the  two  very  dark,  thick  veins  on  the  front  margin  of  the 
wings.  There  are  not  many  species,  but  individuals  are  excess- 
ively common  in  this  country,  flying  in  swarms,  and  frequently 
being  found  upon  window  panes.  Their  larval  habits  are  various, 
but  they  breed  in  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  The 
flies  lay  their  eggs  on  dead  chrysalids,  on  dead  snails  and  in 
decaying  vegetation,  and  the  maggots  which  hatch  develop 
rapidly.  They  are  slender,  and  the  pupa  which  is  contained  in 
the  hardened  last  larval  skin  breathes  by  means  of  two  slender 
processes  issuing  from  the  fourth  segment.  There  has  been 
some  discussion  as  to  whether  the  larvae  of  the  flies  of  this  family 
are  ever  directly  parasitic  in  other  insects,  but  it  seems  to  be 
accepted  that  one  species  is  a  true  parasite  in  the  hives  of  the 
honey  bee  and  a  most  interesting  form  has  recently  been  discov- 
ered which  is  a  true  parasite  of  ants.  In  other  cases,  these  flies 
undoubtedly  lay  their  eggs  on  diseased  or  dying  insects. 

Life  History  of  the  Ant-Decapitating  Fly 

(Apoccphalns  pcrgandci  Coquillett.) 

It  would  be  rather  a  misnomer  to  call  this  a  typical  life 
history  since  this  form  seems  peculiar  in  its  habits  and  rather 
aberrant  among  the  Phoridce,  but  the  observations  which  have 
been  made  upon  it  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Fox  and  Mr.  Theo.  Pergande 
have  been  more  complete  than  any  which  have  been  made  upon 
other  members  of  the  family,  so  it  is  here  included.  A  common 
black  ant,  Camponottis  peitnsylvanicus,  is  the  host  of  this  little 
147 


The  Hump-Backed  Flies 

hump-backed  fly.  In  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  New 
Hampshire  the  fly  may  be  found  in  midsummer  darting  about 
the  moving  ants  on  tree  trunks  and  elsewhere  and  finally  suc- 
ceeding in  laying  its  egg,  sometimes  after  a  struggle,  on  the 
neck  of  the  ant.  The  egg  hatches  and  the  young  larva  bores 
directly  into  the  head  of  the  ant.  As  it  enlarges  it  eats  out  the 
whole  head  cavity,  the  head  breaks  off  from  the  body  of  the  ant 
and  moves  about  independently,  propelled  by  the  body  of  the 
contained  maggot  which  extrudes  partly  from  the  neck  hole. 
The  larva  of  the  fly  transforms  to  pupa  within  the  last  larval  skin 
in  the  cut  off  ant's  head  and  the  adult  fly  issues  in  the  course  of 
from  two  to  three  weeks.  To  see  an  ant's  head  walking  off  by 
itself  is  a  curious  sight,  yet  it  is  common  enough  where  this  fly 
abounds.  Dr.  Fox  named  it,  appropriately  enough,  "the  ant- 
decapitating  fly." 


148 


THE  FLAT-FOOTED  FLIES  AND   THE 
BIG-EYED  FLIES 

(Families  PlatypczidcE  and  Pipitncididee.) 

The  flies  of  both  of  these  families  are  common  looking  little 
creatures  and  most  uninteresting  in  appearance  to  the  general 
observer.  The  flies  of  the  family  Platypezidae  have  been  called 
"flat-footed  flies."  It  is  a  small  family  of  little  flies  which  are 
also  found  in  shady  places.  The  hind  feet  of  many  males  are 
very  broad  and  flat  from  which  comes  the  name  of  the  family, 
The  larvae  live  between  the  gills  of  toad  stools. 

The  members  of  the  last  named  group  are  called  by  Comstock 
"the  big-eyed  flies"  for  the  reason  that  they  have  very  large 
heads  which  seem  to  be  composed  almost  entirely  of  eyes.  They 
are  found  in  shady  places  and  their  larvae  so  far  as  known  are 
parasitic  within  the  bodies  of  leaf-hoppers.  The  pupa  is  said  to 
resemble  that  of  one  of  the  Syrphus  flies. 


149 


THE  SYRPHUS  FLIES 


(Family   Syrphida;.) 

The  syrphus  flies  (for  they  have  no  other  vernacular  name), 
comprise  many  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  dipterous  insects. 
It  is  a  very  large  family  and  more  than  three  hundred  species  are 
known  to  occur  in  the  United  States.  As  a  rule  they  are  rather 
stout-bodied  flies,  varying  greatly  in  color.  Some  are  metallic 
greenish  as  in  Microdon  and  Psilota,  while  others  are  banded  with 
yellow  in  different  ways.  As  a  rule  the  abdomens  are  rather  broad 
and  are  rather  apt  to  be  flat,  but  in  some,  as  in  Baccha  and  its 
allies,  the  abdomen  is  slender.     The  syrphus  flies  are  flower  flies 


Fig.  S2. — Mesograpta  polita :  a,  larva ;  /',  puparium ;  c,  adult. 
(From  Insect  Life.) 

par  excellence.  They  fly  in  the  sunlight  and  are  easily  taken  by 
sweeping  flowering  plants.  Almost  all  types  of  bees  and  wasps 
are  mimicked  by  them  and  so  generally  does  this  occur  through- 
out the  family  that  syrphus  flies  form  the  most  striking  instances 
of  protective  mimicry.  There  are  syrphus  flies  like  honey  bees, 
bumblebees,  social  wasps  and  solitary  wasps  of  several  kinds. 
They  are  rarely  to  be  seen  except  in  the  middle  of  sunshiny  days, 
some  of  them  resting  occasionally  upon  leaves,  but  more  fre- 
quently they  are  to  be  found  about  flowers,  while  others  seem  to 
be  almost  constantly  upon  the  wing. 
150 


The  Syrphus   Flies 

The  habits  of  the  syrphus  flies  in  their  early  stages  vary 
greatly.  Very  many  of  them  in  the  larval  state  feed  upon  plant 
lice  and  other  small,  soft-bodied  insects.  I  have  seen  currant 
bushes  upon  which  there  was  hardly  a  leaf  which  did  not  support 
a  thriving  colony  of  plant  lice  and  which  had  not  become  curled 
and  distorted  in  consequence,  and  yet  within  a  very  few  days, 
while  the  distortion  of  the  leaves  remained,  not  a  plant  louse  was 
to  be  found  but  under  each  leaf  instead  of  the  flourishing  group 
of  lice  was  a  fat,  full-grown  syrphus  larva  which  had  destroyed 
all  of  the  previous  inhabitants  and  was  now  ready  to  transform. 

These   larvae  do  not  have  a  distinctly   differentiated   head. 
The  external  mouth-parts  are  either  entirely  lacking  or  there  are 
two  or  four  usually  dark-colored  booklets.     The  body  is  smooth 
and  usually  glistening.  When  ready 
to  transform,  the  last  skin  of  the 
larva   contracts   and    hardens    and 
assumes  an  oval  shape  and  a  darker 
color  and  the  pupa  is  formed  within 
it.  When  the  fly  is  ready  to  emerge, 
the  front  end   of  the  old  skin  is 
pushed   out    and    the    perfect    fly 
escapes.       The    booklets    on    the 
mouth  of  the  larva  occur  with  those      ^^^-  83-— MaUota  posticata  and 
syrphus  fly  larvae  which  feed  upon  puparium  of  same, 

other  insects  and  they  serve  to  grasp  and  pierce  the  body  of  the 
prey.  Those  larvae  which  do  not  have  such  booklets  have  other 
habits.  They  may  feed  in  the  decaying  wood  of  old  trees  or 
logs;  they  may  live  in  manure  or  soft  mud  impregnated  with  de- 
caying vegetable  matter;  they  may  be  found  in  the  sap  of  trees 
or  in  the  stems  of  certain  tender  plants  or  in  fungi.  Still  others 
are  common  in  ants'  nests  and  others  again  are  guests  in  the 
nests  of  bumblebees.  With  such  variable  habits  there  must 
necessarily  be  considerable  variation  in  structure  and  as  a  result 
of  this  mode  of  life  those  forms  which  live  in  soft  mud  or  manure, 
which  may  be  almost  a  liquid,  and  some  of  those  which  live  in 
very  damp,  decaying  wood,  have  long  slender  projections  at  the 
end  of  the  body  bearing  spiracles  or  breathing  holes  at  the  tip,  so 
that  when  the  body  of  the  larva  is  buried  in  the  semi-liquid  mass 
in  which  it  is  feeding  this  long  tail  still  protrudes  to  the  air, 
enabling  it  to  breathe  in  comfort.  These  larvae  have  been  termed 
151 


The  Syrphus  Flies 

"rat-tailed  maggots"  and  are  very  curious   objects   wiiich   are 
frequently  sent  to  entomologists  for  name. 

Those  which  live  in  ants'  nests  belong  to  the  genus  Microdon 
and  are  among  the  strangest  insect  larvae  known.  They  do  not 
look  like  insect  larvae,  and,  in  fact,  resemble  certain  land  shells. 
Curiously  enough,  they  have  been  described  and  named  as  species 
of  moliusks.  In  fact,  certain  insects  have  given  shell  students  a 
good  deal  of  trouble,  for,  as  will  be  shown  when  we  study  the 
caddis-flies,  certain  cases  constructed  by  these  insects  have  also 
been  described  as  shells.  The  Microdon  larva  does  not  appear  to 
be  jointed  and  the  upper  surface  of  its  body  is  covered  with  a  net- 
work of  bristles  which  usually  hold  a  coating  of  dirt.  There  is 
no  trace  of  any  head  and  the  sides  of  the  body  project,  forming 
a  sort  of  fringe  around  the  edge.  The  soft  pupa  is  formed  within 
the  last  larval  skin  and  does  not  alter  its  shape.  Just  what  these 
larvas  do  in  the  ants'  nests  is  not  well  understood.  Perhaps  the 
ants  gain  some  secretion  from  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they 
are  sometimes  found  elsewhere.  The  adult  flies  of  this  genus  are 
usually  dull-colored,  are  slow  fliers  and  are 
found  on  the  borders  of  low-growing 
woods.  The  flies  have  been  seen  laying 
their  eggs  in  the  ant  hills  and  the  ants  have 
Fig.  84.— Rat-tailed  been  seen  to  drive  them  away  but  they  re- 
(Afi^r^Smith.j  tumed  again,    undiscouraged   by   the   im- 

polite rebuff.      This  fiict  would  not  seem 
to  indicate  that  the  larvse  are  of  any  service  to  the  ants. 

Those  syrphus  flies  which  live,  in  their  early  stages,  in  the 
nests  of  bumblebees  belong  to  the  genus  yolucella,  and  the  flies 
of  this  genus  rather  closely  resemble  bumblebees.  Their  larvae 
were  for  a  long  time  considered  to  be  parasitic  upon  the  young 
of  the  bumblebees  but  later  observations  have  practically  dis- 
proved this  and  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  Volucella  larvae 
are  simply  scavengers,  feeding  upon  the  waste  or  excreta  of  the 
bee  larvae  and  even  upon  the  dead  bodies  of  those  which  die. 
The  bumblebees  seem  to  realize  that  the  syrphus  flies  are  not 
inimical  to  them,  since  they  allow  them  free  access  to  their  nests 
and  do  not  seem  in  the  least  disturbed  by  their  presence. 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  syrphus  flies  is  the  one  which 
commonly  goes  by  the  name  of  the  drone  fly.     It  is  Eristalis  tenax 
and  its  larva  is  one  of  the  rat-tailed  maggots.     It  is  a  cosmo- 
152 


■^T 


.A  ..- 


Plate  XIX. 
TRUE   FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Dizonias  lucasi  (Asilida)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 

2.  Echthodopa  pubera  (Asilidae)  Western  half  U.  S. 

3.  Proctacanthus  brevipennis  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

4.  Nicocles  aemulator  (Asilidse)  Cal. 

5.  Ospriocerus  abdominalis  (Asilidse)  Western  half  U.  S. 
b.  Dizonias  tristis  ^J  (AsiUdae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 

7.  Stenopogon  inquinatus  (Asilidae)  Nebr. 

8.  Saropogon  dustus  (Asilidre)  Tex. 

9.  Ospriocerus  eutrophus  (Asilidse)  Tex. 

10.  Pogonosoma  dorsata  (Asilidae)  Eastern  U.S. 

1 1.  Proctacanthus  heros  (Asilidic)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

12.  Heteropogon  phoenicurus  (Asilidae)  Tex. 

13.  Dizonias  tristis  ?  (Asilidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 

14.  Ospriocerus  ventralis  (Asilidae)  Ariz. 

IS-  Nusa  fulvicauda  (Asilidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  S.  A. 

16.  Scleropogon  helvolus  (Asilidae)  Tex. 

17.  Microstylum  morosum  (Asilidae)  Tex. 

18.  Deromyia  herennius  (Asilidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 
iq.  Dasvllis  astur  (Asilidae)  Cal. 

20.  Promachus  albifasciatus  6  (Asilidae)  Ariz. 

21.  Mallophora  guildiana  (Asilidae)  Kan. 

22.  Mallophora  bomboides  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

23.  Mallophora  clausicella  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

24.  Promachus  rufipes  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

25.  Promachus  albifasciatus  2  (Asilidae)  Ariz. 

26.  Cyrtopogon  plausor  (Asilidae)  Western  U.  S. 

27.  Laphria  saffrana  (Asilidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

28.  Crytopogon  chrysopogon  (Asilidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 
2q.  Promachus  princeps  (Asilidas)  Wash. 


The  Insect  Book. 


The  Syrphus   Flies 

politan  species  and  is  rather  larger  than  the  honey-bee,  which  it 
closely  resembles.  It  frequents  flowers  and  is  commonly  found 
in  houses  on  windows  late  in  the  autumn.  The  larva  are  found 
in  soft  mud  and  in  privies,  where  they  feed  upon  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  transforming  to  pupa  within  the  last  larval 
skin.  Osten  Sacken,  in  two  interesting  papers  on  the  so-called 
"  Bugonia  myth,"  shows  that  this  idea,  which  has  been  prevalent 
since  ancient  times  and  which  is  that  the  carcasses  of  animals  may 
generate  swarms  of  honey-bees,  has  probably  arisen  from  the  fact 
that  this  drone  fly,  breeding  in  carcasses,  has  almost  universally 
been  mistaken  for  the  honey-bee.  The  learned  Russian  author 
shows  the  existence  of  this  myth  with  many  nations,  including 
the  Chinese  and  the  Japanese.  It  is  mentioned  in  many  places 
in  ancient  literature  and  even  occurs  in  the  story  of  Sampson,  in 
the  book  of  Judges  in  the  Old  Testament. 

This  family  is  probably  the  most  attractive  group  of  flies. 
A  collection  of  specimens  is  a  most  interesting  one,  both  from 
the  aesthetic  and  the  scientific  point  of  view.  The  very  frequent 
instances  of  protective  mimicry  referred  to  above,  in  themselves 
should  give  a  great  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  group.  Moreover, 
we  in  this  country  are  most  fortunate  from  the  fact  that  most  of 
our  species  have  been  carefully  studied  and  an  admirable  mono- 
graph by  Dr.  Williston  has  been  published  by  the  National 
Museum,  which  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  works  of  its  kind 
which  the  entomologist  is  able  to  consult.  A  careful  work  on 
the  life  histories  of  these  insects,  however,  is  almost  as  greatly 
needed  as  in  the  other  families  of  flies.  The  statements  which 
have  been  given  above  are  general,  but  in  searching  for  specific 
accounts  of  individual  life  histories  we  find  that  they  are  lacking. 


153 


THE  THICK-HEAD  FLIES 

(Fmnily    ConopidcE.) 

The  flies  of  this  group  are  rather  closely  related  to  the  syr- 
phus  flies.  They  maybe  called,  after  Comstock,  "the  thick- 
head flies,"  because  their  heads  are  large  and  conspicuous. 
The  flies  themselves  are  rather  large,  but  are  generally  slender 
and  the  abdomen  is  stalked,  like  those  of  some  wasps.  The 
wings  are  usually  dark  and  the  insects  themselves  are  dark- 
colored,  but  some  have  yellow  bands  on  the  abdomen.  Those 
which  belong  to  the  genus  Myopa  are  stouter  and  have  hairy 
legs,  almost  like  those  of  a  robber-fly.  The  big-head  flies  are 
found  upon  flowers  with  the  syrphus  flies  and  their  larvse  are 
parasitic,  chiefly  upon  bumblebees  and  wasps,  but  they  have 
also  been  found,  according  to  Williston,  in  the  bodies  of  grass- 
hoppers. 

The  larvse  of  these  flies  live  in  the  bodies  of  the  full-grown 
wasps  and  bees.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  flies  enter  the 
bees'  nests  and  place  their  eggs  on  the  larvse  or  pupse,  but  the 
adult  flies  always  issue  from  the  adult  bees  or  wasps,  having 
occupied  the  interior  of  the  abdomen.  When  full-grown  they 
frequently  completely  fill  the  abdomen.  Williston  has  seen  a 
Conops  following  a  bumblebee  and  repeatedly  flying  against  it 
and  thinks  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  upon  the  body  of  the  bee 
and  that  after  hatching  the  larvse  bore  into  the  abdominal  cavity. 
In  one  instance  a  big-head  fly  was  reared  from  the  body  of  a 
bumblebee  several  months  after  the  latter  had  been  killed  and 
pinned  in  a  collection.  There  is  a  peculiar  genus  in  this  family, 
Stylogaster,  in  which  the  female  has  an  ovipositor  which  is  longer 
than  the  entire  body.  Rather  more  than  thirty  species  of  thick- 
head flies,  distributed  in  seven  genera,  are  known  to  occur  in  the 
United  States. 


»S4 


THE  BOT-FLIES 

(Family    CEstnda;.) 


This  family  contains  the  parasitic  creatures  known  as  bot- 
flies, several  of  which  are  the  cause  of  great  suffering  and  even 
the  death  of  domestic  animals.  The  bot-fly  of  the  sheep  (OEstnts 
ovis),  the  bot-fly  of  the  horse  (Gasirophiliis  eqiti),  the  bot-fly  of 
the  ox  which  is  known  in  England  as  the"  ox  warble  "  fly  (Hypo- 
derma  liiieaia,  the  European  species  being  H.  bovis),  and  certain 
other  forms  whose  larvae 
live  under  the  skin  of  such 
wild  animals  as  squirrels 
and  rabbits  ('genus  Ciiiere- 
bra)  and  which  are  some- 
times in  tropical  regions 
found  under  the  skin  of 
human  beings  ( Dennatobia 
cyaniventris)  belong  to  this 
family.  The  group  is  not 
a  large  one,  comprising 
only  about  sixty  species  and 
the  life  history  of  the  dif- 
ferent species  is  quite  variable,  comprising  many  strange  and 
curious  phenomena.  All,  however,  are  parasitic  in  vertebrate 
animals.  The  flies  themselves  are  rather  large,  generally  rather 
hairy,  and  they  are  as  a  rule  inconspicuous  in  their  coloration. 
The  antennae  are  small  and  inserted  in  rounded  pits. 


Fig.  85.— CEstrus  ovis.     (After  Riley.) 


Typical    Life   History 

( Hypodenna    lincata    Villers.) 

This  fly  is  the  common  ' '  ox  bot  "or"  ox  warble  "  of  the  United 

States  and  is  known  in  the  southwestern  country  as  the  "heel 

fly."     To  stock  raisers  its  larva  is  also  known  as  the  "grub." 

Affected  cattle  are  known  as  "  grubby  "  cattle.     Early  in  the  spring 

155 


The  Bot- Flies 


the  flies  appear  and  are  immediately  attracted  to  cattle,  laying  their 
eggs  upon  the  legs,  especially  just  above  the  hoof,  which  explains 
the  southwestern  name  "heel  fly."  The  eggs  are  occasionally 
laid  on  other  parts  of  the  body  but  the  neighborhood  of  the  hoof 
is  preferred.  They  are  attached  to  the  hair  by  means  of  a  clasp- 
ing projection  and  usually  from  four  to  six  are  laid  together.  The 
animal  licks  its  legs  and  the  larva  at  once  hatches  and  is  carried 
down  into  the  oesophagus,  the  walls  of  which  it  penetrates  by 
means  of  its  strong  spines.     It  then  molts  and  becomes  smooth 

and  for  several 
months  wanders 
through  the  con- 
nective tissues 
of  the  cow, 
between  the 
skin  and  the 
flesh,  penetrat- 
ing gradually 
along  the  neck 
and  ultimately 
reaching  a  point 
beneath  the  skin 
on  the  back  of 
the  animal.  The 
larva  then  molts 
again,  becomes 
more  spiny,  and 
bores      a     hole 


Fig.  86. — Hypoderma  lineata,  eggs.     (After  Riley.) 


through  the  skin,  placing  its  anal  spiracle  near  the  orifice  in  order 
to  get  air.  During  its  earlier  life  it  probably  breathes  by  an  en- 
dosmotic  method  as  do  the  larvae  of  the  parasitic  Hymenoptera 
and  in  fact  much  as  do  the  aquatic  larvae  of  certain  other  insects. 
The  larva  now  develops  rapidly,  living  upon  the  pus  and 
bloody  serum  which  is  produced  by  the  irritation  of  its  spiny  skin. 
It  molts  again  and  is  then  more  than  an  inch  long  and  yellowish- 
white  in  color.  It  works  its  way  out  of  the  minute  orifice  which 
it  enlarges  and  drops  to  the  ground  where  it  contracts  and  hardens, 
the  larval  skin  becoming  the  protection  for  the  pupa  which  is 
formed  within.  In  three  to  six  weeks  the  adult  fly  escapes  by 
pushing  off  the  circular  cap  at  one  end  of  the  puparium. 
.56 


The  Bot-Flies 

The  life  history  of  this  insect  was  entirely  misunderstood 
until  recent  years.  It  was  supposed  that  the  eggs  were  laid  upon 
the  back  and  that  the  larva  immediately  penetrated  the  skin  and 
lived  there  without  wandering.  It  was  not  until  1890  that  the 
true  life  history,  as  described  above,  was  ascertained  by  Dr. 
Cooper  Curtice. 


157 


THE  TACHINA  FLIES 

(Family   Tacliinidce.) 


This  is  a  large  and  important  group  of  flies,  the  members  of 
which  have  no  common  name  except  that  of  "tachina  flies,"  by 
which  they  are  generally  known  to  everyone  who  has  studied 
insects,  even  if  his  studies  have  not  carried  him  into  the  order 
Diptera,  for  all  or  nearly  all  of  these  creatures  are  parasitic  upon 
other  insects  and  a  person  engaged  in  rearing  caterpillars  will 
often  have  his  ultimate  design  frustrated  through  the  work  of  the 
larvae  of  these  flies.  As  a  rule  they  are  medium  sized  or  rather 
large  flies  of  a  gray  tint,  rather  unattractive  in  appearance  and 
perhaps  resembling  the  common  house-fly  as  a  rule.  In  fact,  one 
may  say  that  they  belong  to  the  house-fly  type.  The  gray  body 
color  is  frequently  striped  with  dark 
or  lighter  stripes  and  there  are  some 
marked  exceptions  to  this  general 
colorational  scheme  as,  for  example, 
in  the  dark-winged,  sometimes  red- 
dish-bodied Trichopodas,  the  slender 
Xanthomelsenas  and  Hemydas,the  red- 
bodied  Echinomyias  and  those  species 
of  the  genus  Archyias  which  look  like 
blue-bottle  flies.  In  general  the  wings 
are  clear,  the  bodies  are  somewhat 
bristly  and  the  insects  fly  with  a  buzzing  sound  which  is  not 
very  pronounced  but  like  that  of  a  house-fly.  They  are  active 
and  fly  usually  in  the  sunshine,  being  much  less  in  evidence  on 
cloudy  days. 

In  their  relations  with  man  the  tachina  flies  are  beneficial — • 
the  most  beneficial  group  of  Diptera,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  syrphus  flies.  With  the  tachina  flies,  however,  the  habits 
are  much  more  uniform  and  the  larvae  feed  only  upon  living 
insects.  By  far  the  favorite  hosts  of  these  flies  are  the  leaf-eating 
caterpillars  and  the  numbers  which  are  destroyed  in  a  single 
158 


-Winthemia  quadri- 
pustulata. 
(After  Comstock.) 


The  Tachina   Flies 


season  by  these  parasites  is  quite  beyond  computation.  I  have 
seen  vast  armies  of  the  army-worm,  comprising  unquestionably 
millions  of  individuals,  and  have  been  unable  to  find  a  single 
specimen  which  did  not  bear  the  characteristic  eggs  of  a  tachina 
fly.  These  flies  were  present  in  such  numbers  that  their  buzzing, 
as  they  flew  over  the  army  of  caterpillars,  could  be  heard  at  some 
distance  and  the  farmers  were  unnecessarily  alarmed  since  they 
conceived  the  idea  that  the  flies  were  the  parents  of  the  cater- 
pillars and  were  flying  everywhere  and  laying  their  eggs  in  the 
grass  and  wheat.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  one  great  outbreak  of  the 
army- worm  in  northern  Alabama,  in  the  early  summer  of  1881, 
was  completely 
frustrated  by  the 
tachina  flies,  aided  by 
a  few  other  parasites 
and  predatory  insects. 
They  also  attack 
grasshoppers,  bugs 
and  beetles,  saw-flies 
and  saw-fly  larvae 
and  bumblebees  and 
wasps. 

Their  eggs  are 
usually  white  in  color, 
oval  in  shape  and  are 
stuck  by  some  sort  of 
a  gummy  substance 
to  the  surface  of  the 
insect  on  which  the  future  larvae  are  to  feed.  The  small  white 
eggs  are  frequently  seen  sticking  to  the  back  of  some  unfortunate 
caterpillar.  From  the  under  side  of  each  egg  there  hatches  a  little 
maggot  which  bores  its  way  through  the  skin  of  the  host  insect 
and  penetrates  into  its  body,  where  it  lives,  nourishing  itself  upon 
the  fatty  matter  and  lymph,  until  it  reaches  full  growth,  usually 
if  not  always  destroying  before  it  emerges  some  vital  organ  so  as 
to  cause  the  death  of  the  host  insect.  It  almost  invariably  issues 
when  full  grown  from  the  body  of  the  insect  attacked  and  trans- 
forms at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  within  the  last  larval 
skin,  which  hardens  into  a  brown,  oval  puparium.  Breeding  is 
rapid  and  there  may  be  several  generations  each  summer.  In 
159 


Fig.  S8. — Euphovocera  claripennis 
(  Author  s  illustration.) 


The  Tachina  Flies 

issuing  from  the  puparium  the  fly  breaks  away  the  entire  end  of 
the  hardened  larval  skin. 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  every  caterpillar  upon  which  these 
eggs  were  placed  was  doomed,  but  it  often  happens  that  the 
mother  tachina  fly,  with  a  faulty  instinct,  places  her  eggs  upon 
the  back  of  a  caterpillar  which  is  about  to  cast  its  skin  and  in  such 
instances  it  frequently  moults  before  the  eggs  have  had  time  to 
hatch,  so  that  when  they  do  hatch  the  young  larvse  find  them- 
selves out  in  the  cold  world  instead  of  revelling  in  the  interior  of 
a  well-fed  caterpillar.  So  frequently  does  this  occur  that  a  very 
large  proportion  of  tachina  eggs  are  wasted  by  the  mother  flies. 
The  observations  of  Fernald  and  his  assistants  in  their  work  upon 
the  gipsy  moth  in  Massachusetts  have  given  us  exact  figures  in 
regard  to  this  matter.  in  one  instance  250  caterpillars,  each 
bearing  eggs  of  tachina  flies,  were  fed  and  carried  through  their 
transformation  without  the  appearance  of  a  single  adult  fly.  In 
another  instance  235  caterpillars,  each  bearing  from  one  to  thirty- 
three  eggs,  were  fed  and  watched  and  from  these,  226  moths 
were  reared  and  only  nine  were  killed  by  the  tachinas. 

An  interesting  point  connected  with  the  life  of  these  flies  is 
brought  out  when  we  compare  them  with  the  parasitic  Hymen- 
optera,  the  ichneumon  flies  and  the  chalcis  flies.  In  the  latter 
case  we  are  struck  by  the  extremely  definite  relation  between 
the  kind  of  parasite  and  the  kind  of  host.  The  parasites  of  a  par- 
ticular genus  will  attack  perhaps  only  insects  of  a  certain  family 
and  it  is  a  very  definite  rule  that  parasites  of  a  given  subfamily 
will  attack  only  insects  of  a  certain  order.  With  the  tachina  flies, 
however,  it  is  quite  different.  The  same  species  of  fly  will  lay 
her  eggs  not  only  upon  insects  of  several  different  families  but 
upon  insects  of  two  or  even  three  different  orders.  This  would 
seem  to  me  to  indicate  that  the  parasitic  mode  of  life  in  the 
tachina  flies  is  one  of  comparatively  recent  acquirement  and  that 
sufficient  time  has  not  elapsed  since  they  began  to  take  on  this 
habit  for  so  great  a  differentiation,  so  great  a  co-relation  between 
the  host  relation  and  the  structure  of  the  insects,  to  grow  up. 
The  ancestors  of  the  tachina  flies  were  probably  flesh-flies  and 
the  parasitic  mode  of  life  has  come  from  a  gradual  change  from 
feeding  on  dead  insects  to  feeding  on  live  ones. 

Coquillett  has  pointed  out  that  in  their  instincts  these  flies 
appear  to  be  much  stupider  than  the  ichneumon  flies.  The  latter, 
160 


The  Tachina  Flies 

for  example,  seem  to  know  by  a  touch  of  their  antennae  whether 
or  not  an  insect  has  already  been  stung  by  some  other  parasite  and 
they  only  in  very  rare  instances  insert  an  egg  in  the  body  of  an 
insect  that  already  contains  an  egg  or  larva  of  another  parasite. 
Moreover,  the  ichneumon  flies  seem  to  grade  the  number  of  eggs 
which  they  lay  in  a  certain  insect  to  the  number  of  larvae  which 
can  successfully  grow  within  it.  But  the  tachina  fly  will  attach 
to  a  caterpillar  three  or  four  times  as  many  eggs  as  the  number 
of  larvae  the  caterpillar  can  maintain.  Thus  many  tachinid  larvae 
perish  for  want  of  food  while  some,  which  are  barely  able  to  exist, 
produce  flies  which  are  dwarfed  in  size,  so  that  some  adult  flies 
are  only  one-third  as  large  as  others. 

As  above  stated,  the  group  is  a  very  large  one  and  fortunately 
it  has  been  admirably  monographed  by  Mr.  D.  W.  Coquillett, 
who  has  also  brought  together  from  the  records  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  an  interesting  table  of  these  flies  in 
relation  to  the  insects  upon  which  they  have  been  parasitic. 


THE  NIMBLE  FLIES 

(Family  Dexiida.) 

The  flies  of  this  group,  of  which  we  have  nearly  fifty  species 
in  this  country,  most  of  them  belonging  to  the  typical  genus 
Dexia,  resemble  the  Tachina  flies  for  the  most  part,  although 
some  are  quite  handsome,  as,  for  example,  Etiantha  liturata, 
which  has  banded  wings  and  a  striped  thorax.  The  legs  of  these 
flies  are  usually  long  and  in  their  early  stages  they  are  parasitic  in 
various  insects,  especially  in  beetles  and  also  in  snails.  Some  of 
the  exotic  species  are  very  handsome,  as  those  of  the  genus 
Rutilia. 


162 


THE  FLESH-FLIES 

(Fa  JH  ily  Sa  rcophagidce.) 


Fig.  89. — Compsomyia  macellaria. 
(Aiithor^s  ilhistration. ) 


This  is  a  large  group  of  flies,  comprising  very  many  species, 

and  as  the  scientific  name  indicates  they  are  called  "flesh-flies  " 
because  many  of  them  live  in  the 
larval  state  in  the  bodies  of  dead 
animals.  Although,  as  just  stated, 
many  of  the  so-called  flesh-flies  are 
flesh  feeders,  the  group  as  a  whole 
is  a  variable  one  in  habit.  The 
larvae  of  some  live  in  decaying  vege- 
table matter  and  fruits,  others  live  in 
dung  and  others  are  practically  par- 
asitic upon  living  insects.  One 
genus  (Sarcophila)  is  a  parasite  of 
mammalia  and  even  of  human  beings, 
depositing  its  young  in  the  nostrils 

where  they  cause  great  suffering  and  even  death.     Several  species 

of  this  family  are  referred  to  in  the 

medical     literature     of     "myiasis" 

which     means    the    parasitism    of 

human  beings  by  flies. 

The    females   of   the  flesh-flies 

may  deposit  eggs  in  large  numbers 

or  they  may  deposit  living  larvae,  as 

justMndicated,  the  eggs  being  hatched 

before  they  have  left  the  body  of  the 

female.    A  number  of  famous  insects 

belong  to  this  group.      The  insect 

popularly    known    as  the   "screw- 
worm   fly "  is   well   known   in   the 

west.     It  is  one  of  the  most  important   of  the  insects  which 

affect  domestic  animals  and  its  greatest  damage  is  done  in  Texas 
■63 


Fig.  90. — Lucilia  Csesar. 
(Author's  illustration.  J 


The    Flesh-Flies 

and  adjoining  States.  The  fly  lays  its  eggs  on  any  spot  wiiere 
the  skin  has  been  injured  either  from  a  scratch  by  a  barbed-wire 
fence  or  the  puncture  of  a  thorn.  The  raw  or  slightly  bloody 
surface  attracts  the  flies  which  lay  their  eggs  and  the  larvae  live 
in  the  flesh,  making  a  large  sore.     The  fly  does  not  confine  its 

attacks  to  domestic 
animals  but  also  fre- 
quently attacks  man. 
The  most  common 
cases  are  those  where 
the  fly  has  laid  its  eggs 
in  the  nostrils  of  some 
one,  generally  some 
person  with  a  bad  ca- 
tarrhal trouble.  The 
eggs  hatch  and  the 
larvae  work  their  way 
through  the  upper  nos- 
trils and  destroy  the 
tissues.  The  soft  pal- 
ate is  frequently  entirely 
destroyed     and      fatal 

Fig.  91.— Calliphora  erythrocephala.  cases    in    men    are     not 

(Author's  illustration.)  ~,  , 

'  rare.      The   remedy   is 

to  syringe  out  the  nasal  passages  with  diluted  carbolic  acid.  This 
insect  also  in  its  larval  stage  feeds  on  carrion.  Another  well 
known  flesh-fly  is  Litcilia  ccesar,  generally  known  as  the  green- 
bottle  fly,  which  is  sometimes  driven  into  houses  on  the  approach 
of  a  storm.  The  large  blue-bottle  fly  of  rather  dull  color  with 
black  spines  on  the  thorax  is  known  as  Calliphora  ervllirocephala. 
This  is  the  common  "blow-fly"  of  Europe  and  is  the  species  treated 
by  Lowne  in  his  classic  "Anatomy  of  the  Blow-Fly."  Its  larvae  are 
indistinguishable  from  those  of  the  preceding  species  except  in 
size  and  they  are  to  be  found  on  meat  and  dead  animals.  Riley 
states  also  that  it  destroys  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust  or  western 
grasshopper.  The  flies  of  the  true  genus  Sarcophaga  are  very 
general  scavengers,  feeding,  however,  upon  animal  matter  practi- 
cally exclusively.  The  common  flesh-fly  of  Europe  Sarcophaga 
carnaria  does  not  seem  to  occur  in  this  country  but  we  have  a 
closely  allied  species,  5.  sarracenice,  which  has  been  reared  from 
164 


IcfJfrlqoi^ 


Platk  XX. 
TRUE    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Milesia  virginiensis  (Syrphidit)  Eastern  half  U.  S.,  Cent.  Am. 

2.  Eristalis  occidentalis  (Syrphidae)  Wash. 

3.  Volucella  facialis  (Syrphida)  Northwestern  U.  S. 

4.  Triodonta  curvipes  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S. 

5.  Syrphus  lesueurii  (Syrphidx)  Northern  U.  S. 

6.  Eristalis  vinetorum  (Syrphidse)  Eastern  half  U.  S.,  S.  A. 

7.  Volucella  mexicana  (Syrphida:)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex.,  S.  A. 

8.  Triodonta  curvipes  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S. 

9.  Syrphus  diversipes  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S..  Brit.  Am. 

10.  Eristalis  bastardi  (Syrphidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

11.  Volucella  obesa  (Syrphidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex.,  W.  1. 

12.  Leucozona  leucorum  (Syrphids)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can.,  Eur. 

13.  Syrphus  torvos  (Syrphidc-e)  Northern  U.  S.,  Greenland,  Eur., 

Siberia. 

14.  Lathyrophthalmus  aeneus  (Syrphidae)  N.  A.,  Eur. 

15.  Volucella  fasciata  (Syrphidae)  U.  S.,  Mex. 

16.  Xylota  chalybea  (Syrphidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

1 7.  Spilomyia  4-fasciata  ( Syrphidae)  Northeastern  fourth  U. S., Can. 

18.  Eristalis  compactus  (Syrphids)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

19.  Neromacrus  crucigera  (Syrphidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Cent.  Am. 

20.  Pyrophaena  ocymi  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Eur. 

21.  Brachypalpus  frontosus  (Syrphidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

22.  Eristalis  tenax  (Syrphidae)  Cosmopolitan 

23.  Didea  laxa  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S. 

24.  Mallota  cimbiciformis  (Syrphidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S.,  Can. 

25.  Sphecomyia  vittata  (Syrphidae)  U.  S.,  Eur.,  Siberia 

26.  Cheilosia  plutonia  (Syrphidae)  Alaska 

27.  Temnostoma  aquale  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

28.  Cheilosia lasiophthalma  (Syrphidic)  Northwestern  fourth  U.S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


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The   Flesh-Flies 

larvae  found  feeding  upon  dead  insects  in  the  pitchers  of  the 
common  pitcher  plants  and  which  is  often  reared  from  dead  in- 
sects and  from  excrement.     It  is  rather  a  rapid  breeder  and  a 


Sarcophaga   sarraceniae.     (Author  s   illustration. J 


generation  will  be  developed  in  ten  days  in  the  summer  time. 

Among  the  commonest  of  the  flesh-flies  are  the  small  species 
of  the  genus  Helicobia,  originally  so  named  because  they  were 
reared  from  a  dead  snail.  They  are  very  commonly  found  feeding 
in  the  larval  .stage  upon  the  dead  bodies  of  insects. 

A  majority  of  the  flesh-flies  belong  to  what  may  be  termed 
the  house-fly  type,  /.  e.,  they  are  gray  flies  rather  obscurely 
striped  with  black,  but  some  of  them,  as  just  shown,  may  be- 
come metallic  in  color. 


i6s 


THE  HOUSE-FLY  AND  ITS  NEAR 
RELATIONS 


(Family   Muscida.) 

The  insects  of  this  family  comprise  what  might  be  known 
as  the  typical  true  flies.  The  bristle  of  the  antennae  is  feathery 
and  the  abdomen  is  smooth  except  for  a  certain  number  of 
bristles  near  the  tip.  The  larvae  as  a  rule  feed  upon  decaying 
animal  or  vegetable  matter,  more  abundantly  upon  animal  than 

vegetable.  The  group 
comprises  many  spe- 
cies and  includes  some 
of  the  most  common 
and  abundant  forms, 
such  as  the  house-fly 
(Miisca  domestica),  the 
horn-fly  of  cattle  (HiV- 
matobia  serrala),  the 
stable-fly  (Siomoxys 
calcitrans),  and  some 
of  the  so-called  "blue- 
bottle "  flies.  Certain 
members  of  this  group, 
such  as  the  horn-fly, 
and  the  stable-fly  (both 
species  having  been  in- 
troduced from  Europe) 
are  very  annoying  to 
live  stock  and  produce 
great  loss  by  their  attacks.  Many  species  of  this  group  are  of 
much  value  as  scavengers,  destroying,  through  their  great  num- 
ber and  quick  breeding,  quantities  of  decaying  animal  matter,  but 
some  of  them  are  again  injurious  as  appears  from  recent  investi- 
gations by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  they  breed  in  human  excrement 

166 


^'S-  93- — Haematobia  serrata. 
(From  Insect  Life.) 


The  House-Fly  and  Its   Near  Relations 

through  the  carriage  and  distribution  of  the  germs  of  diseases  of 
the  intestinal  tract,  such  as  typhoid  fever  and  Asiatic  cholera. 


Typical    Life   History 

(Musca  domestica.) 

This  insect,  known  as  the  common  house-fly,  is  found  all 
over  the  world.  It  lays  its  eggs  by  preference  in  horse  manure 
but  in  the  absence 
of  this  substance  will 
oviposit  and  breed 
in  other  excrementi- 
tious  matter  and  will 
lay  its  eggs  in  decay- 
ing vegetables,  al- 
though 1  have  been 
unable  to  rear  it  in 
substances  of  the  last 
named  character.  It 
is  also  difficult  and 
often  impossible  to 
rear  it  from  cow 
dung.  In  horse  manure,  however,  it  flourishes.  The  eggs  are 
laid  freely  on  horse  manure  in  an  undisturbed  condition.     These 


Fig.  94— Morellia  micans.     ( Author's  illustration.) 


Fig.  95.— Stomoxys  calcitrans.     (Author's  illustration.) 
.67 


The  House- Fly  and  Its  Near  Relations 

eggs  are  elongate,  white,  and  hatch  very  soon  after  being  laid,  in 
six  or  eight  hours.  The  larvae,  which  are  white,  pointed  mag- 
gots, as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  grow  rapidly,  cast 
their  sl<in  twice,  and  reach  full  growth  under  favorable  conditions 
in  four  or  five  days.  The  outer  skin  then  hardens,  swells  out, 
turns  dark  brown  in  color,  and  within  it  the  true  pupa  is  formed. 
In  this  stage  it  may  live  for  five  days  and  the  adult  fly  issues  at 
the  expiration  of  this  time  through  a  round  hole  in  the  anterior 
end  of  the  pupal  covering.     This  makes  the  total  life  round  for  a 


Fig.  96. — Musca  domestica.     (Author's  illustraiion.) 


single  generation  in  summer  approximately  ten  days.  Thus 
there  is  abundance  of  time  for  the  development  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  generations  in  the  climate  of  Washington  every  summer. 
The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  an  individual  fly  averages  about 
120  and  the  enormous  numbers  in  which  the  insect  occurs  is  thus 
plainly  accounted  for,  especially  when  we  consider  the  abundance 
and  universal  occurrence  of  appropriate  larval  food.  The  univer- 
sal occurrence  of  uncared  for  piles  of  horse  manure  in  cities  is 
therefore  not  only  a  source  of  great  discomfort  but  is  inimical  to 
health  since  the  house-fly  undoubtedly  distributes  disease  germs. 
The  numbers  in  which  house-fly  larvse  occur  in  horse  manure 
piles  may  be  understood  when  the  statement  is  made  that  from 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  manure  from  the  center  of  a  pile  160 
larvae  and  146  puparia  of  the  house-fly  were  taken.  This  would 
make  about  1,200  house-flies  to  the  pound  of  manure.  This  is 
not  a  fair  average,  but  indicates  possibilities  and  is  an  actual 
record  of  an  individual  case.  Experiments  conducted  by  the 
168 


The  House-Fly  and  Its   Near  Relations 

writer  at  Washington  indicate  tiiat  by  cleanly  measures  in  stables, 
by  the  daily  collection  of  the  manure  and  placing  it  in  a  closed 
pit  or  closet  or  by  treating  it  at  intervals  of  a  week  with  chlorid 
of  lime,  the  house-fly  nuisance  can  be  greatly  abated  and  thus 
the  disease  danger  largely  avoided. 

There  is  a  general  impression  that  house-flies  sometimes  bite 
people,  but  this  is  entirely  wrong.  Their  mouth  parts  are  fitted  for 
sucking  and  lapping  up  liquids,  and  not  for  piercing.  The 
stable-fly  mentioned  in  a  previous  paragraph  is,  however,  a  bit- 
ing one,  and  it  looks  so  much  like  a  house-fly  that  one  almost 
has  to  let  it  bite  before  finding  out  whether  it  is  a  house-fly  or 
not.  The  stable-fly  is  seldom  found  in  houses  except  just  before 
a  rain,  and  then  it  comes  in  at  the  open  windows.  From  this 
fact  arises  the  old  saying,  "  Flies  begin  to  bite  before  a  rain."  It 
has  been  asked  why  flies  seem  to  prefer  windows  and  looking- 
glasses,  but  the  answer  is  simple  enough:  when  they  are  on  the 
windows  they  want  to  get  out;  when  they  are  on  looking- 
glasses  they  are  mistaking  them  for  windows. 

Sometimes  when  a  house-fly  is  examined  it  will  be  seen  to 
be  fairly  covered  with  little  reddish  objects  which  are  really  living 
creatures.  They  are  parasitic  mites  which  attach  themselves  to 
the  bodies  of  house-flies  and  certain  other  insects  and  inserting 
their  long  beaks  suck  their  juices.  It  is  comforting  to  think  that 
the  house-fly  has  these  parasites  which  torment  him  so.  Such 
retribution  is  just.  And  there  is  another  comforting  fact:  house- 
flies  die  of  fungus  diseases.  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  fall, 
flies  will  be  found  behind  the  picture-frames  or  in  rather  dark 
places,  covered  with  a  gray,  fur-like  substance,  which  is  the 
manifestation  of  the  fungus  disease  which  has  killed  it.  Then, 
too,  dead  flies  will  be  seen  with  their  bodies  swollen  and  appear- 
ing more  or  less  striped.  These  also  have  been  killed  by  another 
fungus  disease.  These  epidemic  diseases  cease  in  December,  and 
although  many  thousands  of  house-flies  are  killed  by  them,  the 
remarkable  rapidity  of  development  in  the  eady  summer  months 
soon  more  than  replaces  the  thousands  thus  destroyed. 

If  we  could  only  get  our  boards  of  health  in  cities  to  attack 
the  house-fly  question  and  to  insist  on  the  proper  disposal  and 
treatment  of  horse  manure  the  insect  would  soon  become  scarce, 
and  perhaps  its  agency  in  the  spread  of  disease  will  induce  these 
officials  to  look  into  the  matter.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that 
169 


The  House-Fly  and  Its  Near  Relations 

horses  are  very  much  on  the  decrease  in  cities;  the  motor 
vehicles  of  different  i<inds  are  becoming  multiplied,  and  with 
this  change  will  come  a  decrease,  and  a  marked  one  in  the  num- 
ber of  house-flies.  In  the  country  and  in  agricultural  communi- 
ties there  is  not  much  hope  in  the  near  future  except  through 
better  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  and  an  effort  to 
do  away  with  the  breeding  places  of  this  nuisance. 


THE  ANTHOMYIA  FLIES 

(Family  Anihomyiidce.) 

The  flies  of  this  family  also  as  a  rule  belong  to  the  house-fly 
type.  They  are  generally  rather  small  but  of  unpronounced  color 
It  is  a  very  large  family  and  a  most  difficult  one  to  study  and  the 
flies  themselves  are  singularly  unattractive  in  general  appearance. 
Nevertheless,  the  habits  of  many  of  the  species  are  of  interest  and 
they  feed  not  only  upon  decaying  vegetable  matter  but  also  upon 
growing  plants  and  a  few  prey  upon  the  eggs  of  grasshoppers. 
Such  a  wide  variation  in  habit  suggests  that  structural  characters 
will  eventually  be  found  which  will  split  up  this  large  family 


I^'g-  97-— Homalomyia  brevis.     (Author's  illustration.) 

Several  species  will  be  found  mentioned  in  medical  works  under 
the  head  of  "myiasis  interna"  and  in  these  cases  they  have  been 
taken  into  the  stomachs  of  human  beings  with  spoiled  vegetables. 
They  frequently  retain  their  vitality  and  issue  alive  with  the  fseces. 
The  insects  commonly  known  as  little  house-flies  (Homalomvia 
caniciilaris  and  H.  brevis)  frequently  seen  in  houses  on  windows 
belong  to  this  family.  They  breed  in  decaying  vegetable 
material  and  dung.     The  so-called  onion-fly  (Thorbia  ceparum) 


The  Anthomyia  Flies 

in  the  larval  stage  is  occasionally  very  destructive  to  onions, 
working  into  the  bulb  and  destroying  it  for  food.  The  cabbage 
maggot  (P.  brassicce)  works  in  the  roots  of  cabbage  and  some- 
times does  great  damage.  Some  species  in  the  larval  stage  mine 
the  leaves  of  plants.  Pegomyia  vicina  mines  the  leaves  of  beets 
and  has  become  a  rather  important  insect  since  the  cultivation  of 


Fig.  98. — Pegomyia  vicina.     (Author's  illustration. ) 

the  sugar  beet  has  assumed  large  proportions  in  this  country. 
One  species  is  said  to  damage  seed  corn  when  placed  in  the 
ground  and  others  destroy  injurious  grasshoppers  and  there  are 
records  which  show  that  other  forms  sometimes  live  in  tumors 
under  the  skin  of  birds. 


172 


THE  DUNG  FLIES 

(Families  Scatophagidce  and  Heteroneurid<2.) 


We  are  coming  now  to  a  long  series  of  small  families 
of  rather  small  flies  which  are  not  especially  interesting  or 
especially  remarkable. 

The  Scatophagidae  are  rather  slender,  medium  sized  flies, 
generally  smooth, 
but  rarely  with 
some  bristles  and 
yellowish  hairs.  In 
color  they  are 
usually  black  and 
shining,  but  some- 
times yellowish 
or  with  a  broad 
yellowish  stripe  on 
a  dark  background. 
The  flies  of  this 
family  are  popularly 
known  as  dung 
flies  and  are  at- 
tracted to  and  breed 
in  dung  of  various 
animals,   and    also 

in    decaying    Vege-    Fig.  99. — Scatophaga  furcata.     (Author's  Illustration.) 

table  matter. 

The  Heteroneuridse  are  rather  small,  slender,  yellowish  or 
black  species,  which  are  found  in  foul,  damp  places,  and  whose 
larvae  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees  and  in  similar  situations. 


173 


FAMILIES   HELOMYZID/E,  THYCODROMIDAi 
AND  SCIOMYZID/E 

The  Helomyzidse  are  small,  dark-colored  flies,  looking  some- 
thing like  dung-flies.  They  seem  to  prefer  damp,  shady  places, 
and  fly  in  the  twilight.  In  the  larval  condition  they  are  to  be 
found  in  fungi  and  one  species  in  Europe  feeds  upon  truffles. 
Some  of  them  also  lay  their  eggs  in  the  excrement  of  dogs  and 
other  animals. 

The  Phycodromidae  are  also  small,  grayish  flies  in  which  the 
abdomen  is  somewhat  darker  than  the  thorax.  They  are  found 
on  ocean  beaches,  and  also  on  the  shores  of  lakes,  upon  the 
different  substances,  usually  vegetable,  washed  ashore,  and  they 
probably  breed  in  such  places. 

With  the  Sciomyzidae,  the  colors  are  brown  or  gray,  and  they 
are  ordinary-looking,  medium  sized  or  small  flies.  Their  wings 
are  usually  spotted  or  slightly  clouded.  The  metamorphoses  of 
most  of  them  are  not  known.  These  flies  are  to  be  captured  on 
high  grasses  or  upon  bushes. 


»74 


F/IMILIES  SAPROMYZIDy^,  LONCHEIDy€ 
AND  ORTALIDy^ 

The  flies  of  the  family  Sapromyzidae  much  resemble  those  of 
the  last  mentioned  group,  but  the  wings  are  rarely  spotted.  The 
abdomen  is  usually  rather  broad,  and  short,  and  egg-shaped. 
Their  larvae  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees  or  in  the  burrows 
of  wood-boring  insects,  or  in  decaying  vegetation  of  almost  any 
kind.  The  flies  are  commonly  found  in  damp  spots  near  their 
breeding  places. 

The  Loncheidae  is  a  group  which  was  formerly  included  in 
the  preceding  family  and  which  it  very  much  resembles.     The 


Fig.  100. — Chaetopsis  xnea. 

metamorphoses  are  not  well  known,  but  the  larvae  of  one  species 
have  been  found  in  Europe  in  the  stems  of  weedy  plants,  and  of 
another  in  the  rootlets  of  wheat.  In  this  country  I  have  bred 
Lonchcea  polita  from  dung. 

The  Ortalidae  comprises  a  group  of  flies  with  usually  spotted 

or  banded  wings,  and  frequently  of  metallic  colors.     In  the  larval 

state  they  occur  under  the  bark  of  pine  and  poplar  and  in  the 

burrows  of  wood-boring  insects  and  also  in  onions,  cotton  bolls, 

175 


Families  Sapromyzidae,  Loncheidse  and  Ortalidse 

apples,  and  the  fruit  of  the  Osage  orange,  probably  in  all  cases, 
however,  following  the  work  of  some  other  insect.  Strictly 
speaking,  therefore,  these  flies  are  scavengers.  The  brown 
winged  species  of  the  genus  Pyrgota  are  the  largest  flies  of  this 
family  which  we  have  in  this  country.  Camptonetira  picta  Fabr. 
is  a  beautiful  little  fly  with  brown  wings  in  which  the  brown 
is  incised  with  clear  spaces.  Chcetopsis  aniea  has  been  reared 
from  corn  stalks,  which  however,  as  with  the  other  species,  had 
previously  been  bored  by  some  other  insect. 


176 


|ono3  .o^ 


Plate  XXI. 

TRUE    FLIES 

Eristalis  hirtus  (Syrphidic)  Western  half  U.  S. 
Eristalis  dimidiatus  (Syrphids)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 
Sericomyia  chrysotoxoides  (Syrphidie)  Atlantic  States,  Can. 
Syrphus  americanus  (Syrphidse)  U.  S.,  Brit  Am. 
Syrphus  ribesii  (Syrphids)  Northern  U.  S.,  Eur. 
Eristalis  hirtus  (Syrphidse)  Western  half  U.  S. 
Eristalis  albifrons  (Syrphidae)  Southeastern  U.  S.,  W.  1. 
Sericomyia  chalcopyga  (Syrphidse)  Northwestern  U.  S. 
Syrphus  arcuatus  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am.,  Eur. 
Syrphus  ribesii  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Eur. 
Eristalis  transversus  (Syrphidse)  Atlantic  States 
Sericomyia  militaris  (Syrphidae)  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 
Xylota  analis  (Syrphidse)  Southwestern  U.  S. 
Eristalis  transversus  (Syrphidae)  Atlantic  States 
Eristalis  flavipes  (Syrphidse)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can. 
Xylota  pigra  (Syrphidse)  U.  S.,  Eur. 
Tropidea  quadrata  (Syrphidse)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can. 
Syritta  pipiens  (Syrphidae)  Cosmopolitan 
Helophilus  latifrons  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S. 
Mallota  posticata  (Syrphidse)  Northern  U.  S. 
Baccha  fuscipennis  (Syrphida:)  U.  S.,  Cent.  Am. 
Platycheirus  hyperboreus  (Syrphidae)  Nort.  U.  S.,  Greenland. 
Volucella  evecta  (Syrphidse)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 
Didea  fuscipes  (Syrphidse)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Eur. 
Helophilus  latifrons  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S. 
Baccha  fuscipennis  (Syrphidae)  U.  S.,  Cent.  Am. 
Lasiophthicus  pyrastri  (Syrphidre)  N.  A.,  S.  A.,  Eur.,  Africa 
Somnula  decora  (Syrphidae)  Northeastern  U.  S. 
Tennostoma  bombylans  (Syrphidae)  Northeastern  U.  S. 
Ceria  signifera  (Syrphidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 
Chrysotoxum  derivatum  (Syrphidse)  Northern  U.S.,  Brit.  Am. 
Spilomyia  longicornis  (Syrphidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 
Microdon  tristis  (Syrphidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 
Zodion  splendens  (Conopidae)  Western  half  U.  S.,  Mex. 
Zodion  fulvifrons  (Conopidae)  U.  S. 
Conops  bulbirostris  (Conopidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 
Conops  xanthopareus  (Conopidae)  Conn. 
Cuterebra  tenebrosa  (Oestrid^e)  Western  U.  S. 
Physocephala  furcillata  (Conopidae)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 
Conops  excisus  (Conopidte)  Southeastern  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


THE  FRUIT  AND  GALL  FLIES 


(Faviily  Trypetida:.) 

Most  of  the  flies  of  this  family  are  rather  small,  although 
some  are  above  medium  size.  They  are  of  very  striking  appear- 
ance and  interesting  habits.  They  vary  from  light  yellow  in 
color  to  dark  brown  or  nearly  black,  and  the  body  is  frequently 
curiously  spotted  in  the  lighter  specimens.  The  wings  are  also 
beautifully  banded  and 
marked.  The  group  is 
a  large  one  and  is  well 
represented  in  the  United 
States,  many  genera  and 
species  occurringwithus. 

The  Trypetid  flies 
in  their  early  stages  live 
in  fruits  or  in  the  stems 
of  plants,  producing 
galls.  The  so-called 
apple  maggot  of  the 
Northeastern  States,  an 
insect  which  is  especially 
abundant  in  Maine  and 
New  Hampshire,  is  the  Xzrvaoi  Rhagdetis  pomonella.  It  eats 
into  the  pulp  of  apples,  boring  tunnels  in  all  directions  through 
the  fruit.  It  is  said  especially  to  attack  the  earlier  ripening 
apples.  When  full  grown  it  drops  to  the  ground  and  transforms 
within  the  last  larval  skin.  The  adult  insect  is  a  black  and  white 
fly  with  banded  wings.  One  of  the  large  round  galls  which 
occurs  upon  the  stems  of  goldenrod  is  made  by  one  of  these  flies 
known  as  Eurosta  asteris.  There  are  sometimes  two  of 
these  galls  on  the  same  stalk,  and  they  are  most  conspicuous  in 
the  winter  time  when  there  are  no  leaves  on  the  plant.  If  one 
cuts  open  one  of  these  galls  it  is  found  to  be  full  of  a  pithy  solid 
177 


Fig.  101. — Tephritis  aequalis.  (After  Marlatt.) 


The  Fruit  and  Gall  Flies 

mass,  in  the  center  of  which  is  the  plump,  white  maggot  of  this 
fly.  A  famous  member  of  this  family  is  known  as  Ceraiitis 
capitata,  which  damages  peaches  and  other  fruit  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  It  is  common  and  injurious  in  Bermuda,  but, 
fortunately,  has  not  established  itself  in  the  United  States. 
Another  Trypetid  fly  which  does  great  damage  is  Trypeta  ludens, 
the  larva  of  which  is  known  as  the  Morelos  orange  fruit  worm. 
It  bores  into  the  pulp  of  oranges,  and  renders  them  unfit  for 
eating  purposes.  These  worms  are  frequently  found  in  Mexican 
oranges  which  are  brought  into  the  United  States  in  the  early  fall 
before  the  California  oranges  come  on  the  market.  California 
orange  growers  are  greatly  alarmed  at  the  prospect  that  this 
insect  may  be  imported  into  their  orange  groves  and  establish 
itself  there,  and  they  are  trying  to  induce  Congress  to  pass  a  law 
by  which  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  be  empowered  to 
quarantine  against  Mexican  oranges.  This  would  be  by  no 
means  the  first  instance  in  which  insect  damage  has  caused 
national  legislation. 

The   larva    of   Trypeta  fratria  Loew  mines   the   leaves    of 
parsnip  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 


178 


FAMILIES  MICROPEZIDy^,    SEPSID^, 
PSILID^  AND  'VIOPSID/E. 

The  Micropezid  flies  are  slender,  dark  creatures  of  a  good 
size,  with  a  few  spots  on  the  wings.  They  are  rather  awkward 
in  shape,  their  legs  being  long,  and  they  are  not  common. 
Nothing  is  known  of  their  metamorphoses,  but  they  are  cap- 
tured upon  decaying  and  foul  vegetable  and  animal  matter. 

The  Sepsidas  comprise  a  series  of  small,  frequently  shining 
black  flies,  of  rather  slender  form,  which  breed,  as  a  rule,  in 
decaying  vegetable  material  or  in  dung.     The  little  shining  black 


ig.  I02. — Sepsis  violacea.     fAut/ior's  illustration.) 


species  of  the  genus  Piophila,  however,  breed  in  cheese,  ham 
fat,  and  in  other  fatty  or  spoiled  and  decaying  animal  matter. 
The  little  maggot  known  as  the  "cheese  skipper"  is  the  larva  of 
Piophila  casei  Linn.  This  insect  frequently  does  great  damage 
in  packing  establishments.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  compact  clusters 
of  from  five  to  fifteen,  or  are  scattered  singly.  Each  female  lays 
about  thirty  eggs.  The  egg  is  white,  slender,  slightly  curved, 
one  millimeter  long,  and  hatches  in  thirty-six  hours.  The  larva 
179 


Families  Micropezidae,  Sepsidae,  Psilidae  and  Diopsidae 


Fig.  103. — Piophila  casei :  <;,  larva 
I),  puparium ;  c,  adult. 


three  or  four  inches. 
When  full  grown  it 
moves  away  to  some 
dry  spot,  contracts  and 
assumes  a  yellowish 
color,  the  skin  hard- 
ens, and  within  the 
last  larval  skin  the 
pupa  is  formed.  In 
ten  days  the  adult  fly 
issues.  As  a  cheese 
insect  in  this  country 
this  fly  does  not  play 
as  important  a  part  as 
it  does  as  an  enemy  to 
smoked  meat.  In  Eu- 
rope, it  is  noted  prin- 


is  cylindrical  and  tapers 
toward  the  anterior  end. 
It  completes  its  growth 
in  from  seven  to  eight 
days,  and  if  the  food  sup- 
ply is  sufficient,  it  does 
not  move  much,  but 
when  mature  it  jumps 
in  an  extraordinary  way, 
from  which  it  derives  its 
name  of  cheese  skipper. 
The  leap  is  made  by 
bringing  the  two  ends  of 
the  body  together,  and 
suddenly  releasing  them 
like  a  spring.  In  this  way 
they     sometimes    jump 


Fig.  104. — Nemopoda  minuta.     (Author's 
illustration.) 


Families  Micropzidae,  Sepsidee,  Psilidae  and  Diopsidae 

cipally  as  a  cheese  pest,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observa- 
tion that  the  mother  fly  seems  to  prefer  the  older  and  richer 
cheeses  in  which  to  deposit  her  eggs.  Her  taste  is  excellent, 
and,  while  it  is  a  fair  thing  to  say  that  skippery  cheese  is 
usually  the  best,  it  will  hardly  do  to  support  the  conclusion 
that  it  is  good  because  it  is  skippery,  although  this  con- 
clusion is  current  among  a  certain  class  of  cheese-eaters. 
Readers  of  this  will  be  reminded  of  the  inimitable  scene  in  the 
Erasmus  inn,  described  by  Charles  Reade  in  "The  Cloister  and 
the  Hearth." 

The  flies  of  the  family  Psilidae  are  a  little  stouter  and  shorter 
than  the  Micropezids,  and  are  sometimes  light  in  color,  though 
generally  dark.  The  metamorphoses  of  very  few  of  them  are 
known.  Some  occur  in  the  stems  of  plants;  others  are  found  in 
the  roots  of  carrots  and  cabbages,  and  the  flies  themselves  are 
seen  commonly  sitting  upon  the  leaves  of  bushes  and  low- 
growing  plants. 

The  DiopsidK  are  remarkable  from  their  very  curious  heads. 
The  head  is  greatly  broadened,  with  the  eyes  at  the  extremities, 
and  the  eye-portion  is  swollen.  In  some  tropical  species  this 
feature  becomes  so  exaggerated  that  the  insect  looks  almost  as  if 
it  carried  bicycle  handle  bars  on  its  head.  They  are  small  black 
flies,  usually  stouter  than  those  of  the  groups  which  we  have 
just  mentioned,  and  they  are  found  in  shady  wooded  places. 


THE  SALT-IVATER  FLIES 

(Family  Ephydridce.) 

This  family  includes  a  number  of  insects  of  curious  structure 
and  strange  habits.  The  adults  are  generally  sordid  little  flies 
usually  with  clear  wings. 

The  larvse,  as  a  rule,  are  aquatic  or  subaquatic,  and  are  found 
in  waters  strongly  impregnated  with  salt.  They  occur  near  salt 
wells  and  are  found  in  the  strongly  alkaline  lakes  of  the  West. 
Some  species  breed  in  pools  of  water  strongly  impregnated  with 
minerals,  and  one  form  is  found  breeding  commonly  in  the 
pissoirs  of  European  cities.  I  have  reared  Brachydeiitera  argen- 
tata,  a  handsome  little  species  belonging  to  this  family,  from 
larvse  found  in  a  small  pool  of  water  which  was  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  horse  manure  from  an  adjoining  manure  heap.  The 
numbers  in  which  the  Ephydrid  flies  occur  in  the  alkaline  lakes  in 
our  western  country  is  something  astonishing.  They  are  found 
in  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Mono  Lake,  and  others  of  the  same 
character.  The  waters  of  Lake  Mono  are  very  heavy  and  have 
a  nauseous  taste,  and  when  still  the  water  looks  like  oil  and  feels 
slippery  to  the  touch,  and  it  is  said  that  no  fish  or  reptile  lives  in 
it.  It  swarms,  however,  with  countless  millions  of  these  larvae, 
which  develop  into  flies  which  rest  upon  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  cover  everything  on  the  shore.  The  larvae  and  the  flies  drift 
in  heaps  on  the  beaches,  and  hundreds  of  bushels  can  be  collected. 
Professor  Brewer,  of  Yale  University,  has  published  an  interesting 
account  of  them  from  which  these  statements  are  drawn,  it 
seems  that  at  certain  times  of  the  year  the  Indians  used  to  come 
from  far  and  near  to  get  them  for  food.  They  dried  the  puparia 
in  the  sun  and  then  rubbed  off  the  outer  skin.  The  Indians  call 
this  food  hoo-chah-bee.  Prof.  Brewer  says  that  it  tastes  like 
patent  meat  biscuit  and  if  one  were  ignorant  of  its  origin  it 
would  make  palatable  soup.  Another  species  is  found  in  great 
quantities  in  Lake  Texcoco,  near  the  City  of  Mexico. 


THE  GRASS  STEM  FLIES 

(Family  Oscinidce.) 

These  are  little  flies,  eitlier  daric  and  shining  or  yellowish  in 
color,  and  are  more  or  less  stout-bodied.  The  larvae  breed  in  the 
stems  of  grasses  or  are  found  in  decaying  vegetable  material; 
some  live  in  the  burrows  or  cavities  in  plants  made  by  other 
insects  while  a  few  feed  on  the  egg  shells  and  cast  skins  of 


Fig.  105. — Hippelates  plebijus. 

insects.  Meromyia  Americana  feeds  in  the  stems  of  wheat  and 
rye,  and  sometimes  does  considerable  damage;  the  larva  of 
Chlorops  gramiiiea  lives  in  a  gall-like  swelling  on  grass  stems, 
and  the  larva  of  Chlorops  assimilis  mines  the  leaves  of  sugar  beet. 
One  of  the  commonest  of  these  flies  in  this  country  is  a  little 
scavenger  known  as  Gaurax  anchora,  which  feeds  upon  all  sorts 
of  dead  animal  matter,  such  as  the  empty  egg  shells  of  other 
insects,  the  cast-off  skins  of  caterpillars  and  chrysalids,  and 
spiders'  eggs.  The  little  flies  of  the  genus  Hippelates  are 
183 


The  Grass  Stem  Flies 

especially  noticeable  in  the  summer  time,  particularly  in  the 
Southern  States.  They  are  the  most  minute  of  flies,  and  swarm 
about  the  eyes  of  dogs  and  domestic  animals,  and  in  some  places 
are  annoying  by  getting  into  the  eyes  of  human  beings.  These 
are  the  forms  which  were  considered  by  Hubbard  to  be 
responsible  for  the  spread  of  the  eye  disease  known  as  "  pink-eye  " 
in  Florida,  a  complaint  so  prevalent  at  times,  especially  among 


Fig.  io5. — Gaura.\  anchora.     (Author's  Illustration.) 

school  children,  as  to  cause  the  schools  to  close.  The  species  of 
the  true  genus  Oscinis  almost  invariably  in  their  larval  stage 
bore  into  the  stems  of  living  plants,  especially  grasses,  but  one 
species  lives  in  the  seed  pods  of  the  so-called  Indian  bean  tree 
(Catalpa  speciosa).  A  member  of  this  family  is  the  famous  "  frit 
fly  "  of  Europe,  and  causes  great  damage  to  grain  crops,  especi- 
ally in  North  Europe. 


184 


THE  LITTLE  FRUIT  FLIES 

(Family  DrosophilidcB.) 

This  group  includes  tlie  little  fruit  flies,  or  pomace  flies,  so 
commonly  seen  about  decaying  fruit  and  also  about  other  decaying 
vegetation.  They  are  frequently  found  in  houses  in  the  autumn 
about  dishes  containing  pears,  peaches  and  grapes.  They  are 
attracted  to  fruit  both  for  food  and  as  places  for  oviposition,  since 


lan-a  ;  /',  pupa ;  c,  adult. 


their  larvae  live  in  decaying  vegetable  matter.  They  are  also 
called  "vinegar  flies,"  from  the  fact  that  their  white,  slender 
larvae  are  frequently  found  in  canned  fruits  and  pickles  which 
have  been  imperfectly  sealed,  occurring  mostly  near  the  top  of 
the  jars,  but  living  without  inconvenience  in  the  briny  or  vinegary 
liquid,  and  transforming  within  brown  puparia  around  the  edges 
of  the  jar. 

Drosophila  ampelophila  seems  to  be  the  commonest  species 
all  over  the  United  States,  and  is  mainly  responsible  for  the  injury 
to  canned  fruits  and  pickles.     Drosophilas  are  found  commonly 
185 


The  Little  Fruit  Flies 

around  the  refuse  of  cider  mills  and  fermenting  vats  of  grape 
pomace.  Forbes  has  stated  that  in  1884  they  damaged  the  grape 
crop  at  Moline,  111.  They  attacked  most  frequently  the  grapes 
which  had  been  mutilated  by  birds  or  damaged  by  rot,  but, 
having  once  commenced  on  a  cluster,  they  passed  from  one  berry 
to  another,  the  flies  meanwhile  constantly  laying  eggs. 

A  brood  of  these  flies  may  develop  in  twenty  days.  I  have 
recently  shown  that  these  flies  are  attracted  to  dangerously  foul 
substances,  and  that  they  may  be  responsible  for  the  spread  of 
certain  diseases. 

The  larva  oi  Drosophila  flaveola  (Meig.)  makes  blotch  mines 
in  the  leaves  of  radishes 


186 


2:.  P.  metcalf 


FAMILIES  GEOMYZID/E,  AGROMYZIDy^ 
AND  BORBORIDyE 

The  family  Geomyzidae  is  a  small  one,  and  is  composed  of 
very  small  flies  about  which  there  is  nothing  especially  distinctive 
or  especially  interesting. 
They  are  usually  rather 
slender  and  of  a  grayish  or 
yellow  color,  looking  some- 
thing like  the  pomace  flies. 
Those  of  which  the  meta- 
morphoses are  known  have 
larvae  which  mine  the  leaves 
of  grasses  and  grains. 

The  Agromyzid  flies, 
as  a  rule,  are  small,  insig- 
nificant creatures  of  dull 
colors.  The  larvae  of  some 
of  them  feed  on  living 
plants,  forming  burrows  or 
mines  in  various  parts,  and 
especially  in  the  leaves, 
while  the  larvae  of  others 
(of    the    genus    Leiicopis) 


-Sphaerocera  subsultans. 
(Author's  illiistratiotz.) 


prey  upon    plant-lice  and  scale   insects.     None  of  the  species, 
however,  appear  to  have  any  great  economic  importance. 

The  Borboridae  are  little  flies,  usually  of  dark  color,  and  with 
clear  wi'ngs.  They  are  often  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  upon 
dung,  and,  in  fact,  appear  to  breed  exclusively  in  this  substance. 
One  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Limosina  (L.  venalkius)  was 
found  abundantly  in  Cuba  by  Osten  Sacken,  and  as  it  is  an 
African  species  it  is  very  probable  that  it  was  brought  over  in 
slave  ships.  The  flies  of  this  family  have  some  value  on  account 
of  their  function  as  scavengers,  but  they  may  be  responsible  for 
the  spread  of  disease  among  human  beings. 
187 


THE  BIRD   TICKS. 


(Family  Hippoboscida:.) 

This  group  comprises  a  series  of  very  remarkable  flies  which 
are  parasitic  upon  birds  and  mammals,  moving  quickly  about 
among  the  feathers  and  the  hair.  Unlike  other  external  insect 
parasites  of  vertebrate  animals,  many  of  them  possess  wings 
although  they  are  modified  structurally  in  many  other  respects  as 
a  result  of  their  parasitic  mode  of  life.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able features  of  the  bird  ticks  (as  they  are  called),  is  the  fact  that 
they  not  only  do  not  lay  eggs  but  that  they  do  not  lay  larvae. 
They  are  pupiparous  insects,  the  eggs  having  hatched  and  the  larva 

developed  until  the  pupa 
state  is  nearly  reached 
within  the  body  of  the 
mother.  They  are  ex- 
truded by  the  parent  fly 
only  when  nearly  ready  to 
become  pupae.  Bird  ticks 
are  not  very  prolific;  only 
a  single  young  is  brought 
forth  at  a  birth.  The  pro- 
boscis of  the  adult  fly 
differs  from  that  of  other 
flies,  and  consists  of  two  hard  flaps  which  spread  apart  allowing 
a  tube  to  be  thrust  out  from  the  head. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  intimate  life  history  of  any  of 
them.  Hippobosca  equina  is  a  winged  species  which  occurs  upon 
the  horse  and  which  is  known  in  England  as  the  forest  fly. 
Possibly  the  best-known  species  is  a  wingless  form  known  as 
the  sheep  tick  ( Melophagus  ovimts).  In  this  insect  the  larva  has 
been  shown  to  be  nourished  by  secretions  from  certain  glands  of 
the  mother  fly.  One  of  the  commonest  of  our  North  American 
species  is  Olfersia  americatia  which  is  found  upon  several  kinds 
iSS 


109. — Olfersia  americana. 
f  After  Packard.) 


!// 


!noW  ('iibisvmoij?.)  f-i 


Plate  XXII. 

TRUE   FLIES 

Tachina  mella  (Tachinidc-c)  U.  S.,  Can. 

Gymnosoma  fuliginosa  (Tachinidic)  U.  S.,  Can. 

Trichopoda  cilipes  (Tachinidse)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

Winthemia  4-pustulata  (Tachinidas)  U.  S.,  Can.,  Eur. 

Epalpus  bicolor  (Tachinidse)  Western  U.  S. 

Euphorocera  claripennis  (Tachinidae)  U.  S. 

Hypostena  variabilis  (Tachinidre)  U.  S.,  Can. 

Trichopoda  lanipes  (Tachinidae)  Southern  U.  S. 

Svmphoromyia  limata  (Leptidse)  Cal. 

Archytas  analis  (Tachinidae)  U.  S.,  Can.,  W.  I. 

Peleteria  tessellata  (Tachinidise)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can.,  Eur. 

Epalpus  signifera  (Tachinidae)  U.  S. 

Tachina  robusta  (Tachinidae)  U.  S.,  Can. 

Archytas  lateralis  (Tachinidae)  U.  S. 

Belvosia  bifasciata  (Tachinidae)  U.  S.,  Mex. 

Jurinia  metallica  (Tachinidae)  Southern  U.  S. 

Trichopoda  formosa  (Tachinidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  Mex. 

Blepharipeza  adusta  (Tachinidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can. 

Jurinella  ambigua  (Tachinidae)  Col. 

Hemyda  aurata  (Tachinidae)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

Paradejeania  rutilioides  (Tachinidae)  Western  U.  S.,  Mex. 

Blepharipeza  adusta  (Tachinidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Can. 

Dejeania  vexatrix  (Tachinidae)  Col. 

Thelaira  leucozona  (Dexidae)  U.  S.,  Eur. 

Micropthalma  disjuncta  (Tachinidae)  U.  S.  Eur. 

Theresia  canescens  (Dexidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

Archytas  hystrix  (Tachinidae)  Southern  U.  S. 

Pollenia  rudis  (Sarcophagidae)  Eastern  U.  S.,  Eur. 

Theresia  tandrec    (Dexidae)  Southeastern  U.  S. 

Myocera  tibialis  (Dexidae)  U.  S. 

Zelia  vertebrata  (Dexidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

Scatophaga  pallida  (Scatophagidae)  Northern  U.  S.,  Brit.  Am. 

Muscina  stabulans  (Muscidae)  U.  S.,  Eur. 

Senopterina  splendens  (Ortalidae)  Southern  U.  S.,  S.  A. 

Zonosema  electa  (Trypetidae)  U.  S. 

Tetanocera  clara  (Sciomyzidcc)  Northeastern  U.  S.,  Can. 

Chrysomyia  macellaria  (Sarcophagidae)  U.S.,  Cent.  Am.,  S.  A. 

Strauzia  longipennis  (Ortalidae)  U.S. 

Ornithomyia  erythrocephala  (Hippoboscidae)  N.  A.,  W.  I.,S.  A. 

Tritoxa  incurva  (Ortalida;)  Eastern  half  U.  S. 

Sepedon  fuscipennis  (Sciomyzidie)  Northeastern  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book 


35  V  1< ''  / 

(t)-tO  \      ]  A\ 


The  Bird  Ticks 


of  birds,  such  as  the  horned  owl,  certain  hawl<s,  the  ruffed  grouse 
or  partridge,  and  which  has  a  hard,  smooth,  flattened  yellow 
body.  The  species  which  belong  to  the  genus  Lipoptena  live  on 
mammals,  and  apparently  live  for  a  long  time.     When  they  first 


Fig.  110. — Melophagus  oviiius. 
(After  Packard.) 

appear  they  have  wings,  but  when  they  have  found  a  satisfactory 
location  on  some  deer  or  other  animal  they  lose  their  wings 
either  by  biting  them  off  or  casting  them.  While  still  winged 
they  may  live  on  birds.  In  other  words,  apparently  too  lazy  to 
fly,  they  use  birds  as  their  means  of  conveyance  until  they  find 
themselves  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  some  deer.  That  the 
name  "bird  ticks  "should  have  been  applied  to  these  creatures  is 
very  unfortunate,  since  the  name  tick  ought  to  be  restricted  to  the 
spider-like  parasites  of  the  family  Ixodidse,  but  in  the  case  of  the 
so-called  sheep  tick,  which  is  really  a  dipterous  insect,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  name  tick  should  have  been  applied  since 
no  one  in  his  senses  would  think  that  it  is  a  fly  unless  he  were 
familiar  (With  the  intimate  structure  of  the  Diptera  and  of  the  true 
ticks. 


THE  BAT   TICKS. 

(Fain  ily  Nyctcribiidct.) 

These  are  also  wingless,  degraded,  parasitic  flies,  which  have 
a  similar  misnomer  in  the  vernacular,  and  are  called  bat  ticks. 
They  are  quite  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  the  flies,  the  body 
being  small  and  the  legs   remarkably   long,  so  that  they  look 


Fig.  III. — Nycteriba  sp.   ( After  Packard.) 

almost  like  spiders.  The  head  is  very  small  and  the  eyes  may 
be  entirely  lacking.  They  are  rarely  more  than  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  but  the  long  legs,  which  are  frequently  banded 
with  jet  black  and  silvery  white,  render  them  quite  conspicuous. 


FLEAS 


(Order  Siphonaftcra.) 

The  insects  of  this  order,  comprising  all  of  the  true  fleas, 
are  ail  contained  in  a  single  family,  the  Pulicidae.  They  are  all 
wingless,  the  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking,  and  the  body 
is  compressed  from  side  to  side.  The  antennas  are  short  and 
thick,  and  are  placed  in  depressions  behind  the  simple  unfaceted 
eyes.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete.  They  are  the  greatest 
jumpers  known  in  nature.  The  fleas  are  like  the  mosquitoes, 
comparatively  few  in  number  of  species,  but  very  abundant  in  in- 
dividuals,and  well 
represent  in  struc- 
ture the  degraded 
form  which  is  the 
result  of  a  semi- 
parasitic  life. 
They  prey  upon 
nearly  all  species 
of  warm-blooded 
animals,  some, 
and  in  fact  most 
species  of  fleas, 
passing  readily 
from  one  species  of 
animal  to  another. 
Very  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of 
birds  are  infested 
by  Piilex  avium, 
while  Piilex  ser- 
raticeps  occurs  all 

over    the     world,       Fig.  112.— Pulex  serratkeps.     (Author's  illustration. J 
191 


infesting  cats  and  dogs,  both  domestic  and  wild,  upon  the 
Egyptian  Ichneumon  and  the  common  European  pole-cat,  the 
striped  hyaena,  the  common  hare,  the  raccoon,  and  it  also  bites 
human  beings.  The  food  of  flea  larvae  has  been  the  subject  of 
some  discussion.  The  old  statement  that  the  female  flea  disgorges 
drops  of  blood  upon  which  her  young  feed,  seems  true  only  to  a 
small  degree.  Laboulbene,  the  famous  French  entomologist,  at 
first  believed  that  blood  was  necessary  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
larvae,  the  reddish  colored  contents  of  the  digestive  tract  making 
him  think  so,  but  he  found  that  they  would  flourish  and  com- 
plete their  metamorphoses 
in  sweepings  in  which 
there  was  no  trace  of  blood. 
He  concluded  that  all  that 
has  been  said  about  P. 
irn'taiis  (the  human  flea 
of  Europe)  nourishing  its 
young  on  dried  blood  is 
very  problematic.  Mr.  W. 
J.  Simmons  found  flea  lar- 
vae feeding  upon  a  dust 
composed  of  fragments  of 
cuticle,  hairs,  fibers,  and 
pellets  of  dried  blood, 
the  last  being  probably 
the  natural  excreta  of  the  fleas.  The  writer  has  fed  them  suc- 
cessfully upon  moist  bread  crumbs,  and  it  is  reasonably  certain 
that  they  will  feed  upon  the  dust  or  minute  particles  of  almost 
any  kind  of  organic  matter. 

The  minute,  delicate,  whitish  eggs  hatch  into  slender,  worm- 
like larvae,  which,  when  full-grown,  spin  delicate  cocoons,  and 
transform  to  pupae,  from  which  issue  the  adults.  Rather  more 
than  loo  species  are  known,  of  which  about  30  have  been  found 
in  the  United  States. 

In  the  recent  important  and  alarming  indictments  of  certain 
species  of  insects  as  carriers  and  transmitters  of  certain  human 
diseases,  fleas  have  not  escaped.  Grassi  considers  that  the  cat 
and  dog  flea  (P.  serraticeps)  is  an  intermediate  host  of  Taenia 
(tape-worms),  while  Simon  and  others  have  brought  forward 
some  proof  that  certain  fleas  convey  the  germs  of  the  bubonic 
192 


Fig.  113. — Sarcopsylla  gallinacea. 
(From  Insect  Life) 


plague  from   rats   to  human  beings,   and   from   one  person   to 
another. 

A  curious  and  aberrant  flea  is  the  so-called  "chigoe"  or  chigger 
of  tropical  America  (Sarcopsylla  penetrans),  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  so-called  chigger  of  Virginia  and  southward,  which  is 
the  larva  of  a  mite.  The  female  of  the  chigoe,  sometimes  found 
in  tropical  Florida,  and  frequently  brought  to  our  southern  sea- 
ports (New  Orleans,  Savannah  and  Charleston),  buries  the 
forepart  of  her  body  in  the  flesh  of  human  beings,  the  abdomen 
becoming  greatly  distended  and  discharging  a  number  of  eggs. 
Another  species  of  the  same  genus  (S.  gallinacea),  sometimes 
called  the  chicken  flea,  buries  itself  in  the  eyelids  of  domestic 
fowls  in  our  southern  states  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 


Life-History  of  the  Cat  and   Dog  Flea 

(Pitlex  scrraticcps  Gervais.^ 

This  insect,  commonly  known  as  the  cat  and  dog  flea,  as 
stated  above,  occurs  on  a  number  of  different  animals,  and  in  the 
northeastern  United  States  at  least  is  the  common  flea,  which 
proves  a  pest  in  houses.  The  true  human  flea,  so-called 
(P.  irritans),  seems  to  be  very  rare  in  the  United  States,  although 
common  enough  in  Europe,  as  travelers  and  those  who  have 
read  Mark  Twain's  account  of  the  "chamois"  well  know.  The 
eggs  of  the  cat  and  dog  flea  are  deposited  between  the  hairs  of 
the  infested  animals,  but  are  not  fastened  to  them,  so  that  when 
the  animal  moves  about  or  lies  down,  large  numbers  of  the  eggs 
will  be  dislodged  and  drop  to  the  ground  or  floor,  or  wherever 
the  animal  may  be  at  the  time.  An  easy  way  to  collect  them, 
therefore,  is  to  lay  a  strip  of  cloth  for  the  animal  to  sleep  upon, 
and  afterwards  crush  the  cloth  into  a  receptacle,  in  which  the 
eggs  will  be  found  in  numbers.  The  eggs  hatch  under  fnvorable 
circumstances  in  from  two  to  four  days,  and  the  young  larvae, 
very  slender  and  elongate,  white  in  color,  and  of  the  structure 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  crawl  into  the  floor  cracks 
and  feed  upon  the  accumulated  dust.  They  may  be  reared  under 
observation,  in  saucers,  between  layers  of  blotting  paper,  with 
dust  and  bread  crumbs.  Specimens  studied  by  Mr.  Pergande,  at 
193 


the  writer's  office  in  Washington,  showed  that  the  larva  casts  its 
first  skin  in  from  three  to  seven  days,  and  its  second  sl<in  in  from 
three  to  four  days.  From  seven  to  fourteen  days  after  hatching, 
they  began  to  spin  a  delicate  silken  cocoon,  which,  when  com- 
pleted, was  almost  transparent,  except  where  it  was  covered 
with  dust  particles.  In  the  cocoon  the  pupa,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  was  formed  and  the  insect  remained  in 
the  pupal  condition  for  four  days.  Thus  an  entire  generation 
may  be  developed  in  about  a  fortnight,  and  since  the  adult 
female  lays  many  eggs,  it  is  not  surprising  that  persons  having 
cats  or  dogs  about  the  house  will  frequently  (and  especially 
where  the  houses  are  closed  during  the  summer,  and  the  floors 
left  unswept)  find  their  domiciles  overrun  with  thousands  of 
these  active,  biting  creatures. 

The  remedies  consist  in  a  free  use  of  fresh  pyrethrum 
powder,  in  spraying  the  floors  and  floor  coverings  with  benzine 
or  in  thoroughly  washing  the  floors  with  hot  water  and  soap. 
On  pet  animals  pyrethrum  powder  should  be  freely  used. 


THE  CADDIS  FLIES 

(Order  Triclioptcra.) 

Almost  everyone  who  likes  to  watch  curious  living  creatures 
knows  the  caddis  worms — the  strange  little  larvse  which  con- 
struct cases  of  bits  of  leaves,  twigs,  small  stones,  or  sand,  and 
which  live  under  the  water  of  permanent  streams  or  ponds. 
They  are  very  good  objects  for  the  aquarium,  and  are  struc- 
turally of  great  interest.  While  the  case-bearing  larvae  are  so 
well  known,  it  is  quite  different  with  the  adult  insects,  which 


14. — Caddis  fly  and  larva. 
(From  Lugger.) 

not  only  are  seldom  seen  in  collections,  but  have  been  studied  to 
a  comparatively  slight  extent  in  this  country.  They  have  four 
wings,  which  are  more  or  less  clothed  with  hairs,  so  that  the 
caddis  flies  look  very  much  like  moths.  The  mouth-parts  are 
rudimentary,  and  the  antennae  are  thread-like,  frequently  very 
long  and  many-jointed.  The  pupae  resemble  the  perfect  insects 
in  general  appearance,  and  become  active  before  the  last  molt. 
The  hind  wings  of  the  flies  are  often  broader  than  the  fore- 
wings,  and  may  be  folded  in  repose. 
195 


The  Caddis  Flies 

The  caddis  flies  are  often  seen  about  the  margins  of  streams 
and  frequent  shady  places.  They  do  not  often  fly  during  the 
day,  but  are  sometimes  attracted  to  light  at  night. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  double  mass,  which  is  gelatinous,  and 
usually  green  in  color.  This  mass  is  usually  attached  to  the 
surface  of  some  water-plant,  but  it  is  supposed  that  certain 
species  creep  down  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants  under  water  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs.  The  larvae  are  all  aquatic,  with 
the  exception  of  one  form,  which  lives  in  damp  moss  on  land, 
and  they  are  nearly  all  protected  by  a  case  of  some  form  or 
another.  The  cases,  as  just  stated,  may  be  composed  of  leaves, 
either  attached  by  their  edges  or  placed  longitudinally,  or  they 
may  be  bits  of  stick  arranged  in  many  different  ways,  or  stones, 
or  grains  of  sand,  or  even  water-snail  shells  may  be  used  for  the 
purpose,  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  case,  in  such  cases  sand 
being  the  main  material.  All  of  these  different  substances  are 
fastened  together  by  means  of  silk,  spun  by  the  larvae,  and  they 
serve  to  protect  the  caddis  worms  from  the  predatory  insects  so 
often  found  in  streams,  and  also  from  fish  as  well. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  cases  are  cylindrical,  but 
sometiijies  they  are  curved  in  a  horn-like  manner,  and  in  other 
cases  they  are  very  strangely  involuted,  like  a  snail-shell.  In 
fact,  the  case  of  a  caddis  worm  was  once  described  by  a  con- 
chologist  as  a  new  species  of  snail-shell.  Then  there  is  another 
form  in  which  the  case  resembles  a  bottle  with  the  bottom  cut 
away  and  the  lower  part  compressed  until  only  a  slit  is  visible. 
In  the  majority  of  instances  the  cases  are  free,  and  the  larva 
crawls  or  swims  about  with  only  its  head  and  thorax  protruding 
from  the  orifice,  but  in  other  instances  they  are  firmly  attached 
to  rocks  or  submerged  logs. 

The  larva  itself  is  elongate  and  usually  cylindrical,  and  while 
the  head  and  thorax  are  tough  and  horny,  the  abdomen  is  thin- 
skinned,  delicate,  and  of  a  pale  color.  It  breathes  by  means  of 
tracheal  gills,  which  issue  from  the  sides  of  the  abdomen.  It  is 
not  known  how  many  times  any  of  them  shed  the  skin  and 
a  molt  has  never  been  observed  to  my  knowledge.  They  live 
several  months  in  the  larval  stage,  and  some  of  them  pass  the 
winter  in  that  condition.  When  ready  to  transform  to  pupa, 
both  ends  of  the  case  or  tube  are  protected  by  a  silk  netting, 
spun  by  the  larva,  which  transforms  in  security,  well  drawn  back 


The  Caddis   Flies 

from  either  orifice.  When  ready  to  transform  to  the  adult  stage 
the  pupa  works  its  way  through  the  guarded  orifice,  swims  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  crawls  out,  where  possible  upon  a 
twig  or  other  vegetation,  or  upon  the  bank.  It  may  cast  its 
pupal  skin  while  still  in  the  water,  the  wings  remaining  unex- 
panded,  but  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  water  the  wings  expand 
instantly  to  their  full  size,  and  the  fly  departs  through  the  air. 
This  statement  is  based  upon  an  interesting  observation  by  Corn- 
stock,  who  states  that  the  instant  expansion  of  the  wings  is 
necessitated  by  the  fact  that  the  insects  studied  by  him  normally 
emerge  from  rapidly  flowing  streams,  which  dash  over  rocks, 
and  if  much  time  were  required  in  this  wing-expansion,  the 
water  would  destroy  the  wings  for  purposes  of  flight,  and  dash 
the  insect  down.  The  larval  food  of  the  caddis  flies  is  mainly 
vegetable,  but  there  is  one  group  which  is  carnivorous.  The 
order  is  not  a  very  large  one,  but  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  North  American  species  have  been  described. 

As  common  as  are  the  caddis  worms,  and  as  often  as  they 
have  been  watched  in  streams  and  in  aquaria,  not  a  single  full 
life  history  has  been  recorded  in  this  country,  and  a  fascinating 
field  for  original  investigation  is  therefore  open  to  the  first  comer. 


Table  of  Families 

Spines  on  the  legs,  three  ocelli i 

No  spines,  only  hairs  and  spurs 2 

I — Four  spurs  on  middle  tibiae Family  Phryganeidiv 

Two  or  three  spurs  on  middle  tibias Family  Limnephilichv 

2 — Last  two  joints  of  palpi  not  elongated,  simple  not  flexible. .  .3 

Last  joint  of  palpi,  elongate,  flexible,  palpi  hairy s 

} — Male  palpi  four-jointed,  ocelli  absent 4 

Male  palpi  five-joinied,  ocelli  often  present,  when  absent  the 

spurs  2-4-4 Family  RhyacophilidiZ 

4 — No  spurs  on  anterior  legs Family  Hydroptilidce 

Spurs  present  on  anterior  legs Family  Sericostomatidce 

5 — Basal   joint  of  antenna   long   and   large,  wings   slender,   no 

ocelli Family  Lcptoceridce 

Basal  joint  of  antenna  shorter,   wings   broader,  last  joint  of 
palpi  multi-articulate Family  Hydropsychidce 

197 


FAMILY  PHRYGANEID/E 

This  family  contains  tine  largest  of  the  caddis  flies.  McLach- 
lan  calls  them  "the  giants  of  the  order."  They  are  found  only 
in  the  northern  portions  of  the  globe  and  some  of  the  most  striking 
species  are  boreal,  or  at  least  inhabit  high  mountains.  They  are 
not  very  numerous.  One  of  the  largest  and  handsomest,  Neiiro- 
iiia  semifasciata  Say,  is  shown  on  the  accompanying  plate,  and 
has  been  taken  by  the  writer  at  night  at  a  light  in  his  cottage  in  the 
Catskill  Mountains  (elevation  2, 500  feet).  The  larvas  live  in  ponds, 
swamps,  and  bogs,  and  make  cylindrical  cases  of  bits  of  leaves  or 
the  fibers  of  slender-leafed  aquatic  plants  which  they  arrange  in  a 
spiral  manner.  The  cases  of  the  full-grown  larvae  are  nearly  of 
the  same  diameter  at  each  end  but  with  the  young  larv^  it  is 
smaller  at  the  tail-end  and  that  end  is  cut  off  by  the  caddis  worm 
in  order  to  add  the  remainder  to  the  front  end.  The  cases  are 
open  at  both  ends  and  the  larvse  are  probably  able  to  reverse  their 
positions  within  them.  The  perfect  insects  conceal  themselves 
during  the  day  and  fly  at  night.  Their  flight  is  lumbering,  and 
they  are  readily  recognized  while  on  the  wing.  Only  two  genera 
are  represented  in  the  United  States,  namely  Phryganea  and  Neu- 
ronia,  most  of  our  species  belonging  to  the  latter  genus. 


198 


FAMILY  LIMNEPHILID/E 

The  members  of  this  family  are  smaller  than  those  in  the 
group  which  we  have  just  discussed  but  they  seem  confined  very 
largely  to  temperate  regions.  They  are  common  in  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia  and  Labrador,  the  Northwest  Territory  and  Alaska, 
but  some  forms  extend  down  into  Louisiana  and  Georgia.  The 
habits  of  the  larvae  are  very  variable.  Some  live  in  torrents,  others 
in  still  water.  The  cases  are  free,  but  the  materials  employed 
vary  in  all  possible  manners.  It  is  some  of  the  members  of  this 
group  which  employ  snail-shells,  and  Comstock  has  found  shells 
containing  living  snails  securely  fastened  to  the  case  of  one  of 
these  larvae.  Thus,  he  says,  "the  snail  was  afforded  compara- 
tively rapid  transportation  whether  it  desired  it  or  not."  It  is 
also  to  this  group  that  the  single  form  belongs  which  lives  in 
moss,  the  only  non-aquatic  member  of  the  order.  The  moss 
which  it  inhabits  may  be  at  the  roots  of  trees  far  removed  from 
water,  in  England  caddis  worms  are  used  very  commonly  as 
bait  by  fishermen,  and  it  is  generally  the  members  of  this  family 
which  are  so  used. 


FA  MIL  Y  RHYACOTHILIDy^ 

The  insects  of  this  group  have  a  broader  distribution  and 
more  of  them  extend  to  the  south  than  any  of  the  preceding 
families.  The  flies  are  small  or  of  medium  size.  The  larvse  are 
found  in  rapid  streams  and,  instead  of  making  free  cases  with 
which  to  move  about,  their  cases  are  formed  of  small  stones 
fastened  with  silk  to  the  rocks — a  wise  provision,  considering  the 
rapidly-running  character  of  the  streams  which  they  inhabit. 
These  cases  are  very  slight  and  loosely  formed — merely  a  few 
pebbles  fastened  to  the  lower  surface  of  a  large  stone  by  a  few 
threads  of  silk,  but,  living  on  the  under  surface  of  rocks  as  it  does, 
the  insect  is  less  hable  to  be  attacked  by  fish  or  predatory  insects, 
and  does  not  need  so  elaborate  a  case  as  do  the  free  swimmers  or 
crawlers.  When  it  transforms  to  pupa  a  special  protection  is 
formed  within  the  case  in  the  shape  of  a  brown  cocoon,  which 
is  thin  but  of  tough  texture.  We  have  a  few  widely-distributed 
species  in  this  family,  which  belong  to  four  genera. 


FAMILY  HYDROPTILIDy^ 

This  group  deserves  only  a  word.  They  are  the  smallest  of 
the  caddis  tlies,  none  of  them  possessing  a  wing  expanse  of  more 
than  ten  millimeters.  They  look  in  form  much  like  some  of  the 
tineid  moths,  and  possess  long  fringes  to  the  wings  just  as  do 
some  of  these  moths.  They  are  attracted  by  lights  in  the  houses 
near  the  water,  sometimes  in  great  numbers.  The  larvae  make 
very  small  cases,  which  are  almost  seed-like  in  appearance  and 
are  composed  of  silk  dotted  with  very  fine  grains  of  sand.  The 
larvae  are  destitute  of  breathing  filaments  (probably  breathing 
through  the  general  surface  of  the  skin),  and  are  found  amongst 
water  plants  or  on  the  surface  of  stones  at  the  bottom.  They 
have  very  short  legs  and  a  distended  abdomen.  The  cases  are 
provided  with  a  slit  at  each  end,  and  the  larvae  turn  around  inside 
the  case  with  facility. 


FAMILY  SERICOSTOMATID/E 

The  caddis  flies  of  this  group  are  usually  excessively  hairy. 
They  vary  much  in  form.  Their  larvae  usually  inhabit  streams 
and  not  ponds,  and  the  flies  are  generally  found  near  the 
breeding  places.  The  larval  cases  are  usually  of  the  ordinary 
cylindrical  form.  They  are  free,  and  generally  made  of  sand  or 
small  stones,  but  sometimes  the  cases  are  broad  and  flattened 
and  sometimes  they  are  quadrangular,  and  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  are  those  which  are  constructed  in  the  shape  of  a 
snail-shell.  An  almost  perfect  helix  is  made  by  some  of  them, 
and  it  is  one  of  these  which,  as  mentioned  above,  was  described 
by  a  conchologist  as  a  new  species  of  snail.  That  was  at  a  time 
when  shell  students  described  the  shells  and  cared  nothing  for 
the  animal  which  inhabits  them.  We  have  in  the  United  States 
a  number  of  species  in  this  family,  separated  into  nine  genera, 
most  of  the  forms  being  northern,  although  the  two  typical 
Sericostomas  inhabit  Georgia. 


FAMILY  LEPTOCERID^ 

These  are  caddis  flies  with  very  long  antennae,  and  usually 
with  very  hairy  wings,  it  is  a  large  family  and  widely  distributed. 
About  forty  species  are  known  from  North  America,  where  the 
genus  Setodes  is  best  represented.  Some  of  the  caddis  flies  are 
very  handsome,  and  also  resemble  tineid  moths,  especially  the 
little  flies  of  the  genus  Adela  and  its  allies.  Setodes  exquisita 
Walker  well  deserves  its  specific  name.  The  larva  are  found 
both  in  ponds  and  in  running  streams,  but  more  commonly  in  the 
latter.  They  are  not  often  found  in  very  swiftly  running  tor- 
rents, since  their  food  is  largely  living  vegetation,  which  does  not 
grow  in  such  streams.  The  case  is  free,  and  is  ordinarily  com- 
posed of  sand,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  slightly  curved,  although 
there  are  some  cases  of  different  shape. 


203 


FAMILY  HYDROPS YCHIDy^ 


Fig.  1 1 5. — Trap  and  larval  case  of 
Hydropsyche.     fAiii/tor's  illustration,  j 


The  caddis  flies  wliich  should  possess  the  greatest  interest 
for  us,  because  it  is  a  personal  interest,  belong  to  this  group.  Their 
larvae  are  the  only  caddis 
worms  which  are  carnivo- 
rous. They  are  found  both 
in  streams  and  in  ponds, 
but  more  commonly  in 
streams.  They  are  elong- 
ate and  slender,  with  short 
legs,  and  with  anal  pro- 
jections which  bear  strong 
curved  claws  with  which 
they  hold  to  the  surface  of  rocks  or  to  their  cases.  Their  cases 
are  fixed  and  are  generally  composed  of  bits  of  stone  fastened  to 
large  stones  or  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water.  Sometimes  several  larvas  appear  to 
live  in  company  in  a  common  case,  being 
covered  by  a  sheet  of  silk,  to  which  minute 
fragments  of  leaves  and  sticks  are  fastened. 
There  is  usually  more  silk  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  cases  of  these  insects  than 
with  the  caddis  worms  of  the  other  families 
which  have  stony  cases,  and  although  the 
stones  attached  to  it  may  be  few  in  number, 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  pretty  dense,  silken  tube. 
Sometimes  this  tube  is  simply  covered  with 
slimy  mud  and  has  no  other  foreign  objects 
attached  to  it.  Some  of  these  larvae  prey 
upon  other  aquatic  insects  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  this  is  a  general  habit  of  the  group. 
An  interesting  form  which  1  have 
watched  in  Rock  Creek,  near  Washington,  inhabits  a  case  shaped 
like  a  funnel,  the  tube  of  the  funnel  bent  nearly  at  right  angles 
204 


Fig.  116. — Larva  of 
Hydropsyche,     the 
maker  of  the  trap, 
figure  1 15. 
(  Author^  s  ilhtstration.) 


Family  Hydropsychidae 

with  the  mouth.  The  mouth  is  composed  of  a  network  of  sill< 
supported  by  arched  bits  of  twigs.  The  larva  remains  hidden 
in  the  funnel,  watching  for  its  prey  to  be  caught  in  the  open  mouth. 
The  cases  were  preferably  placed  at  the  edge  of  slight  depressions 
in  the  rocky  surface  so  that  the  tubular  portion  was  protected 
from  the  full  force  of  the  current.  On  the  surface  of  a  rock  about 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter  i66  of  these  nets  were  counted.  The 
larvae  of  one  of  the  black  flies  were  very  abundant  in  this  stream 
and  were  washed  into  the  mouths  of  these  nets  and  probably 
formed  the  principal  food  of  the  Hydropsyche  larvae.  Therefore, 
this  is  one  of  the  few  creatures  which  we  know  which  helps  to 
reduce  the  number  of  black  flies  and  it  must  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  very  beneficial  to  mankind.  The  fiimily  is  a  rather 
large  one  and  nearly  thirty  species  are  known  to  occur  in  this 
country,  about  half  of  them  belonging  to  the  typical  genus 
Hydropsyche.  Macrouenia  [ebratiim  Hagen  is  one  of  our  hand- 
somest species.  Its  wings  are  beautifully  spotted  and  banded 
with  yellowish  brown.     It  occurs  from  Canada  south  to  Virginia. 


205 


THE  SCORPION  FLIES 

(Order  Mecoptera.) 

The  curious  insects  of  this  order  are  ordinarily  called  scor- 
pion flies,  although  this  term  applies  strictly  only  to  those  of  the 
genus  Panorpa  which  have  the  genital  organs  of  the  male  adult 
curiously  enlarged  and  modified  so  as  to  resemble  the  tail  of  a 
scorpion.  Mecopterous  insects  have  four  wings  with  many 
veins.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  is  the  great  prolongation  of 
the  head  into  a  stout  beak-like  organ  at  the  end  of  which  are 
biting  mouth-parts.  The  metamorphoses  are  complete.  Only 
one  family  is  contained  in  this  order. 


206 


FAMILY  PANORPID/E 

The  representatives  of  this  family  in  the  United  States  are  all 
contained  in  the  genera  Panorpa,  Bittacus  and  Boreus.  The  true 
scorpion  flies  are  very  common  insects  in  midsummer  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States.  Some  of  them  have  beautiful,  spotted 
wings  and  are  seen  flying  in  the  bright  sunlight  in  places  where 
tall  herbage  abounds.  At  my  country  place  in  the  Catskill  Moun- 
tains they  are  extremely  abundant  towards  the  end  of  July,  flying 
from  one  blackberry  bush  to  another  and  resting  frequently  upon 
the  golden-rod  plants.  All  Panorpids  are  carnivorous,  but  Pan- 
orpa has  not  been  observed  in  this  country  to  capture  other 
insects  as  does  Bittacus.  The  development  of  these  insects  was 
unknown  until  the  Austrian  entomologist,  Brauer,  in  1863,  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  eggs  and  rearing  the  insect.  The  larvae  of 
Panorpa  and  Bittacus  are  found  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  feed  upon  dead  animals,  including  such  soft-bodied  insects 
as  caterpillars  and  grubs.  The  other  genus,  Boreus,  is  composed 
of  wingless  forms  which  look  something  like  minute  wingless 
grasshoppers.  They  occur  in  winter  upon  snow  in  our  Northern 
States. 


Life  History  of  a  Scorpion  Fly 

(Panorpa  rufesccns  Ramb.^ 

This  species,  which  is  common  in  our  Northern  States,  is  the 
first  Panorpid  to  be  carefully  studied  in  this  country.  It  was 
found  commonly  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  the  summer  of  1895,  by 
Dr.  E.  P.  Felt,  flying  in  moist  woods  during  July  and  August  and 
especially  along  streams  and  where  nettles  abounded.  After  con- 
fining several  females  in  breeding  cages  the  eggs  were  obtained. 
They  were  laid  in  an  irregular  mass,  were  yellowish  white  in  color, 
from  twenty -four  to  twenty-nine  in  each  cluster,  and  from  i  cm. 
to  2  cm.  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  earth  was  moist 
207 


Family  Panorpidae 

and  the  larvae  hatched  in  from  six  to  seven  days.  The  young 
larva  when  first  hatched  is  whitish,  with  a  light  brown  head 
which  becomes  darker  when  the  body  becomes  gray.  It  looks 
like  a  caterpillar  but  the  antennae  and  the  eyes  are  unusually 
prominent.  The  abdomen  bears  a  row  of  ringed  spines  down 
the  back,  those  toward  the  anal  end  of  the  body  being  longer. 
The  larvae  pass  through  several  stages  of  growth  within  the  first 
two  weeks.  They  burrow  into  little  tunnels  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  remain  underground  most  of  the  time.  They 
were  fed  upon  raw  meat  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Sometimes  they  come  out  of  their  burrows  for  feeding.  They 
are  cannibalistic  and  the  stronger  ones  destroy  the  weaker 
ones.  They  wander  in  search  of  food  and  feed  upon  all  sorts  of 
dead  flesh.  They  reach  full  growth  in  from  three  to  four  weeks, 
burrow  deeper  into  the  ground,  excavate  another  cell,  and  remain 
as  larvae  for  several  months  before  entering  the  pupa  state. 
There  seems  to  be  but  one  generation  annually,  the  adults  issuing 
in  midsummer. 


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Plate   XXIII. 
NEUROPTEROID    INSECTS 

FIG. 

1.  Asynarchus  punctatissimus  (Limnephilidie)  Northern  States 

2.  Polystoechotes  punctatus  (Hemerobiidas)  U.  S. 

3.  Mantispa  interrupta  (Mantispidae)  Southern  States 

4.  Mantispa  brunnea  (Mantispidte)  Southern  States 

5.  Neuronia  semifasciata  (Phryganeidse)  U.  S. 

6.  Chauliodes  lunatus  (Sialidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

7.  Chauliodes  lunatus  $  (Sialidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

8.  Platyphylax  subfasciata  (Limnephilidae)  Northern  States 

9.  Macronema  zebratum  (Hydropsychidas)  Eastern  States 

10.  Panorpa  rufescens  (Panorpids)  Eastern  States 

11.  Panorpa  subfurcata  (Panorpidse)  Northern  States 

12.  Bittacus  strigosus  (Panorpidse)  Eastern  States 

1 3.  Bittacus  apicalis  (Panorpidae)  Eastern  States 

14.  Chauliodes  pectinicornis  (Sialidae)  Eastern  States 
IS-  Corydalis  cornutus  $  head  (Sialidas)  Eastern  States 

16.  Corydalis  cornutus  $  (Sialidae)  Eastern  States 

17.  Taeniopteryx  fasciata  (Perlidae)  Eastern  States 

18.  Sialis  infumata  (Sialida)  Eastern  States 


The  Insect  Book 


THE    LACE-WINGED    INSECTS 

(Ordet   Neuroptera.) 

There  was  a  time,  and  it  extended  down  to  comparatively 
recent  years,  when  all  of  the  insects  which  would  not  fit  into 
any  of  the  five  principal  orders,  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  Lepidop- 
tera,  Orthoptera,  or  Hemiptera,  were  placed  in  the  order  Neurop- 
tera, but  entomologists  of  late  years  have  changed  all  that,  and 
the  old  group  Neuroptera,  as  it  was  formerly  considered,  has 
been  divided  up  into  a  number  of  distinct  orders. 

The  first  step  was  to  separate  those  which  had  a  complete 
metamorphosis  from  those  in  which  the  metamorphosis  was 
incomplete.  This  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  only  one  new 
order,  the  so-called  Pseudoneuroptera,  which  included  those  in 
which  the  metamorphosis  was  incomplete,  but  the  Pseudoneurop- 
tera has  again  been  split  up,  and  we  have  the  Thysanura,  the 
May-flies,  the  dragon-flies,  the  white-ants,  the  Psocids  and  book- 
lice,  the  bird-lice,  the  caddis  flies  and  the  scorpion  flies,  all 
forming  distinct  orders,  which  are  treated  elsewhere  in  this 
work.  There  remain  then  those  of  the  old  order  Neuroptera  in 
which  the  perfect  insect  has  a  biting  mouth,  two  pairs  of  mem- 
branous wings  with  many  veins,  and  in  which  there  is  a  com- 
plete metamorphosis,  the  larva  being  quite  dissimilar  from  the 
adult,  and  moreover,  in  the  adults  in  no  case  is  the  head  pro- 
longed into  a  beak-like  structure.  Even  under  this  restriction  of 
the  old  order  Neuroptera  we  have  still  a  number  of  diverse  forms 
in  the  order,  and  these  are  separated  into  seven  well-marked 
families.  It  would  not  be  surprising  if  the  old  order  were  still 
further  split  up,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  a  distinct  ordinal  name 
has  been  suggested  for  a  group  of  five  of  these  families. 

The  biting  mouth-parts  of  the  Neuroptera  as  limited  at 
present  are  not  used  for  the  purpose  of  eating  vegetation  to  any 
extent,  since  practically  all  of  the  insects  in  this  group  are  car- 
nivorous and  feed  upon  other  insects.     Some  of  them  are  aquatic, 

20Q 


The  Lace-Winged  Insects 

but  the  majority  of  them  live  on  land,  and  wherever  their  prey 
abounds.  Many  members  of  the  group  are  most  beneficial  in 
the  great  number  of  injurious  insects  which  they  destroy,  while 
others  are  few  in  number  of  species  and  rare  in  individuals,  and 
some  of  them  prey  upon  beneficial  insects. 

Table  of  Families 

Hind  wings  with  an  anal  space i 

Hind  wings  with  no  anal  space 2 

I — Prothorax  quadrangular  when  seen  from  above 

Family  Sialidae 

Prothorax  long  and  cylindrical Family  Raphidiiiice 

2 — Front  legs  formed  for  grasping Family  Mantispidce 

Front  legs  of  the  ordinary  type 3 

3 — Wings  covered  with  a  whitish  powder 

Family   Coniopterygidce 

Wings  not  powdered 4 

4 — Antennse  clubbed  at  end Family  Myniieleonidce 

AntennsE  not  clubbed  at  end 5 

5 — Antennae  moniliform  (beaded) Family  HemerobiidcB 

6 — Antennas  setiform  (bristle  shaped) Family  Chrysopidce 


THE  DOBS  ON  AND  ITS  TAMIL  Y 

(Family  SialidcB.) 

To  this  group  belong  the  so-called  alder  flies,  fish  flies  and 
hellgrammites  ;  in  fact,  some  of  them  have  many  popular  names. 
They  have  four  broad  wings,  of  which  the  hind  ones  are  wide  at 
the  base  and  capable  of  being  folded  behind.  The  wings  have 
numerous  veins,  both  longitudinal  and  transverse,  forming 
irregular  cells.  There  is  a  very  complete  metamorphosis,  the 
larva  having  strong-toothed  jaws  and  the  pupa  being  quiescent. 
It  is  a  small  family,  with  only  a  few  genera,  but  some  of  the 
species  are  so  striking  in  appearance,  so  interesting  in  habits,  that 
the  group  deserves  really  more  extended  mention  than  can  be 
given  it  here.  All  of  the  forms  are  aquatic  or  subaquatic  in  their 
earlier  stages. 

Of  the  typical  genus  Sialis  we  have  only  two  species.  They 
comprise  the  smaller  individuals  of  the  fomily,  and  frequent 
vegetation  about  the  banks  of  streams.  Very  many  eggs  are  laid 
by  a  single  female  on  the  vegetation  overhanging  streams,  from 
two  to  three  thousand  being  contained  in  a  single  egg  mass. 

Most  of  our  species  belong  to  the  genus  Chauliodes,  of  which 
the  so-called  comb-horned  fish-fly  ( Chauliodes  peciiniconiis  L.) 
is  the  commonest  form  throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  eggs  do  not  seem  to  be  known,  but  the 
larvae  are  found  in  the  water  crawling  along  weeds  and  upon  the 
bottom.  They  are  carnivorous,  and  feed  upon  other  aquatic 
insects,  and  when  ready  to  transform  to  pupae  crawl  out  upon 
the  bank,  and  are  then  found  in  cavities  under  stones  or  even 
under  the  bark  of  trees.  The  adult  insect  has  a  wing  spread  of 
three  and  one-half  inches,  and  is  a  striking  looking  creature. 
Chauliodes  litnatus  is  a  large  and  handsome  species  with  brown 
wings  banded  with  white.  The  difference  in  size  between  its 
males  and  females  is  very  striking. 

Needham  says  that  the  larvae  of  Sialis  infumata  live  in  trashy 


The  Dobson  and  its  Family 

places  filled  with  aquatic  plants  in  the  border  of  streams  and 
ponds.  They  clamber  through  fallen  vegetation  with  great 
agility,  and  push  their  way  readily  through  sediment  fallen  upon 
the  bottom.  In  an  aquarium,  and  probably  outside,  the  long  tail 
is  intermittently  lashed  up  and  down.  This  causes  a  swirl  in  the 
water,  which  is  doubtless  useful  in  bringing  a  fresh  supply  of 
well-ierated  water  into  contact  with  the  lateral  filaments.  When 
the  larvae  are  full  grown  they  burrow  into  the  soil  for  several 
inches  and  become  pupae  without  making  a  cocoon.  The  adult 
fly  emerges  after  two  or  three  weeks. 

The  eggs  of  Chauliodes  have  been  found  by  Needham  in  the 
Adirondack  region  of  New  York  to  be  very  generally  parasitized 
by  a  very  minute  egg  parasite,  a  chalcis  fly,  more  than  seventy 
per  cent,  of  the  eggs  being  destroyed  in  this  way. 

The  most  familiar  American  example  of  this  group  is  the 
so-called  hellgrammite  tly,  some  account  of  which  is  given  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 


Life  History  of  the  Dobson 

(Corydalis  cotniita  l^.J 

This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  most  curious  of  insects 
which  occur  in  North  America.  Its  transformations  were  first  de- 
scribed in  part  by  S.  S.  Haldeman  in  1848.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  at  that  time,  although  the  insect  was  well  known  to  most  peo- 
ple in  the  localities  where  it  was  found,  Dr.  Haldeman  was  never 
able  to  discover  that  it  had  a  vernacular  name  either  in  English 
or  German  among  the  so-called  Pennsylvania  Dutch.  Surely  this 
defect  must  have  been  speedily  remedied,  since  the  great  four- 
winged  fly  with  its  enormous  jaws  is  now  generally  known  as 
the  hellgrammite.  while  its  great,  strong,  biting,  wriggling 
larvas  are  familiar  to  fishermen  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  Dobsons,  or  crawlers.  In  fact,  it  is  likely  that  not  one 
of  our  insects  has  so  many  vernacular  names  at  the  present  time. 
In  1889  Professor  W.  W.  Bailey,  of  Brown  University,  collected 
the  names  in  use  in  Rhode  Island  alone  for  this  insect,  and 
they  are  sufficiently  interesting  to  be  repeated.  They  are  : 
Dobsons,  crawlers,  amiy,  conniption  bugs,  clipper,  water  grampus, 


The  Dobson  and  its  Family 


goy,   bogart,  crock,  hell  devils,  flip-flaps,  alligators,  Ho 
Jack,  snake-doctor,  dragon  and  hell-diver. 

It  will  be  very  easy  to  infer  from  these  names  alone  that  the 
insect  is  a  very  extraordinary  one  and  somewhat  terrifying  in 
its  appearance. 


Fig.  117. — Corydalis  comuta.     ( After  Riley.) 

The  adult  is  a  large  creature,  having  a  wing  spread  of  more 
than  four  inches,  and  possessed  in  the  female,  of  powerful  biting 
jaws,  with  which  it  can  give  a  severe  pinch  to  the  skin  of  the  per- 
son who  handles  it  carelessly.  With  the  male  there  is  a  curious 
modification  of  the  jaws.  They  are  extended  into  long,  curved, 
piercing  organs,  which  cross  when  at  rest,  and  which  are  fullj 
an  inch  in  length.  These  jaws  make  the  male  look  particularly 
213 


The  Dobson  and  its  Family 

dangerous,  but,  fortunately,  they  do  not  function  as  jaws,  and 
are  simply  used  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  female  during 
marital  caresses. 

The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  white,  chalky-looking  masses 
about  the  size  of  a  nickel  five-cent  piece.  These  masses  are 
somewhat  convex,  and  contain  about  three  thousand  very  small 
eggs  set  on  end.  They  are  deposited  on  the  leaves  of  trees  over- 
hanging the  water,  or  on  rocks,  or  the  piers  of  bridges  or  similar 
places  where  the  larvae  can  readily  drop  into  the  stream  or  pond. 


Fig.  :i8. — Corydalis  comuta.     ( After  Riley.) 


Sometimes  they  are  so  abundant  as  to  make  the  rocks  look  as 
though  someone  had  splashed  whitewash  upon  them  profusely 
with  a  brush. 

The  young  on  hatching  drop  immediately  into  the  water, 
descend  to  the  bottom,  and  during  the  entire  larval  life,  which 
lasts  two  years  and  eleven  months,  feed  upon  other  aquatic 
insects,  especially  the  early  stages  of  the  May-flies  and  stone-flies. 
They  hide  under  stones  in  swift-running  currents,  and  possess  at 
the  anal  end  of  the  body  two  strong  tubercles,  each  provided 
with  two  curved  claws,  with  which  they  hold  firmly  to  one 
object  or  another.     They  breathe  through  several  pairs  of  tufts  of 


The  Dobson  and  its  Family 

breathing  filaments  situated  just  beneatli  eacii  side  of  the 
abdomen.  They  also,  when  they  approach  full  growth,  have 
spiracles,  which  are  closed,  however,  until  the  creature  is  ready 
to  emerge  from  the  water.  The  number  of  molts  is  not  recorded. 
When  full  grown  (two  years  and  eleven  months  after  its  birth), 
the  larva  leaves  the  water  and  crawls  about  seeking  a  suitable 
place  for  pupation.  It  does  not  travel  very  fiir,  but  it  crawls 
energetically  while  it  is  about  it,  curiously  enough,  climbing  trees 
occasionally,  and  on  several  occasions  in  Illinois  they  fell  down 
the  chimney  of  a  house  occupied  by  the  man  who  kept  the  toll 
bridge  over  the  Rock  River.  They  travel  on  land  only  by  night, 
hiding  under  some  stone  or  log  during  the  day,  and  it  is  under 
stones  and  logs  that  they  finally  pupate. 

The  larva  in  color  is  dark  slate-gray,  and  is  remarkably 
thick-skinned  and  tough.  This  fact  adds  to  their  value  as  bait, 
since  one  will  last  a  long  while.  The  pupa,  however,  is  light 
yellow  in  color,  and  transforms  to  the  adult  fiy  in  about  a  month. 
Full  grown  larva  begin  to  emerge  from  the  water  in  May,  and 
the  adults  are  seen  flying  a  month  later. 

In  rapid,  rock-bottomed  streams,  where  these  insects  abound, 
the  method  of  catching  them  is  to  wade  in  the  streams  with  a 
net  and  lift  up  the  stones  in  advance,  catching  the  larva  in  the  net 
as  they  float  down  with  the  current. 

They  bear  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  in  addition  to  the  respira- 
tory tufts  mentioned  above,  two  long  filaments  on  each  side, 
which  are  furnished  with  hairs,  and  may  be  of  some  service  in 
swimming.  Possibly,  also,  with  the  very  young  larva  they  have 
a  respiratory  function.  When  the  larvse  become  large,  however, 
dissection  shows  that  the  trachea  contained  in  these  filaments  are 
insignificant,  whereas  each  element  of  the  branchial  tufts 
possesses  a  strong  branched  trachea, 

Mr.  R.  S.  Clifton  has  found  an  interesting  little  dark-colored 
beetle  (Anthictts  haldemanni)  along  the  Potomac  River,  feeding 
upon  the  egg  masses  of  the  hellgrammite  fly.  The  beetle  was 
found  to  lay  its  eggs  upon  the  egg  masses  and  its  larva  were 
found  destroying  the  eggs.  Sometimes  as  many  as  a  dozen  of 
the  larva  were  found  in  a  single  egg  mass. 


2IS 


THE  SNAKE-FLIES 

(Family  RapIiidiid(E.) 

Insects  of  this  family  are  rapacious  foes  of  other  insects,  and 
it  is  a  pity  that  their  geographic  distribution  in  the  United  States 
is  so  limited.  They  are  found  as  a  matter  of  fact  practically  only 
on  the  Pacific  Slope,  although  one  species  is  recorded  from  Col- 
orado and  another  from  Arizona. 

They  are  insects  of  curious  structure,  the  neck  being  very 
long  and  the  female  bearing  a  long,  curved  ovipositor.  The 
larvae  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  Comstock  says  that 
in  California  he  has  found  them  commonly  under  the  loose  bark 
of  the  Eucalyptus. 

The  codling  moth  or  apple-worm  has  a  habit  of  spinning  its 
cocoon  under  the  loose  bark  of  apple  trees  after  it  leaves  the 
fruit,  and  ^many  of  the  codling  moth  larvae  are  destroyed  by  these 
Raphidians.  In  Australia  and  New  Zealand  the  codling  moth  is 
a  great  scourge,  and  some  years  ago  an  attempt  was  made  to 
send  living  Raphidians  from  California  to  these  English  colonies 
in  the  hope  that  they  might  become  acclimated  and  assist  fruit- 
growers in  their  work  against  the  codling  moth.  Nothing  has 
been  heard  from  them,  however,  for  several  years,  and  the  prob- 
abilities are  that  the  attempt  was  a  failure.  In  England  these 
insects  are  known  as  snake-flies,  from  the  long  neck  of  the  adult. 

The  larvae  are  very  voracious  and  hunt  for  their  prey  with 
great  assiduity.  They  are,  like  many  other  carnivorous  insects, 
capable  of  fasting  for  a  long  time.  The  German  entomologist 
Stein  kept  one  for  eight  months  without  food,  but  still  living. 

The  pupae  is  found  naked  under  bark  and  looks  like  the 
adult  except  that  it  has  not  the  long  neck.  It  becomes  active 
before  giving  out  the  adult,  just  as  do  the  pupae  of  the  caddis  flies. 

Less  than  ten  species  inhabit  the  United  States,  all  of  them, 

as  above  stated,  being  far  western  forms.     The  full  life-history 

of  none  of  them  is  known. 

216 


THE  FALSE  REAR-HORSES 

(Faniily    Mantispidce.) 

As  the  name  would  indicate,  these  insects  bear  some  re- 
semblance to  the  Mantidas,  or  praying  Mantes,  or  "rear-horses" 
as  they  are  called  in  the  South.  They  have  a  long  neck,  and  the 
strong,  dilated  and  spined  front  legs  are  inserted  just  behind  the 
head,  and  are  used  for  capturing  their  prey. 

Very  few  species  inhabit  the  United  States,  only  two,  Mati- 
tispa  robinia  and  M.  interrupta,  having  a  very  wide  distribution. 

The  transformations  of  these  creatures  was  for  a  long  time 
a  mystery,  but  Brauer,  of  Vienna,  learned  about  thirty  years 
ago  that  they  live  upon  the  eggs  and  young  of  spiders.  Their 
eggs  are  very  small,  and  very  numerous,  and  each  is  placed  at 
the  tip  of  a  long  stalk,  very  much  the  same  way  as  are  the  eggs 
of  the  lace-winged  flies  which  will  be  described  later.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  fall  and  the  larvas  hatch  before  winter,  but  remain 
hidden  without  food,  until  spring.  Then  they  search  for  the  egg 
cocoons  of  certain  spiders,  pierce  them,  and  enter  among  the 
eggs.  When  the  eggs  are  nearly  ready  to  hatch  they  eat  them 
and  the  young  spiders  as  well,  until  they  are  full  grown,  molting 
only  twice,  and  the  changing  to  pupae  or  nymphs  within  the  larval 
skin.  Just  as  in  the  last  family,  the  pupa  is  active  before  giving 
out  the  fly,  and  works  its  way  through  the  larval  skin,  through 
the  egg  cocoon  of  the  spider,  and  gives  forth  the  adult. 

In  the  genus  Symphasis,  which  belongs  to  this  family,  the 
transformations  of  our  single  native  species  which  lives  in  Cali- 
fornia have  not  been  studied,  but  a  South  American  species  lives 
in  the  nests  of  a  wasp. 


THE  DUSTY-IVINGS 

(Family  ConioptcrygidcB.) 

The  insects  of  this  fnmily  are  the  smallest  of  the  Neuroptera. 
Their  wings  are  covered  with  whitish  powder.  In  Europe  their 
larvae  have  been  found  to  prey  upon  scale  insects  and  to  spin  a 
double  cocoon  when  full  grown  and  ready  to  transform. 

In  this  country  we  have  only  two  species,  namely  Aleiironia 
westwoodii  and  Coniopleryx  vicina,  and  the  life  history  of  neither 
has  been  described.  Mr.  Banks,  however,  has  found  the  larvae  of 
the  Aleuronia  upon  the  leaves  of  maple  trees  at  Washington, 
where  it  was  probably  feeding  upon  the  young  of  the  cottony 
cushion  scale  ( Piilvinaria  mnitiiicrabilis)  or  upon  plant-lice  found 
commonly  upon  the  leaves.  This  larva  resembles  a  small  larva 
of  one  of  the  lace-winged  flies,  but  has  not  the  long  jaws  char- 
acteristic of  those  creatures. 


Plate  XXIV. 
NEUROPTEROID    INSECTS 

FIG. 

1.  Platyphylax  difficilis  (Limnephilidse)  Eastern  States 

2.  Isogenes  frontalis  (Perlids)  Northern  States 

3.  Limnephilus  externus  (Limnephilidae)  Eastern  States 

4.  Neuronia  stygipes  (Piiryganeidae)  Northeastern  States 

5.  Pteronarcellus  badius  (Perlidse)  Western  States 

6.  Hydropsyche  grandis  (Hydropsychidae)  Western  States 

7.  Macronema  transversa  (Hydropsychidae)  Southern  States 

8.  Corydaiis  cornutus  (eggs)  (Sialidre)  Eastern  States 

9.  Leptocerus  resurgens  (Leptoceridae)  Northern  States 

10.  Brachynemurus  4-punctatus   (Mvrmeleonidae)  Southwestern 

States 

11.  Panorpa  lugubris  (Panorpidae)  Southern  States 

I.!.  Brachynemurus  4-punctatus  (Myrmeleonidae)   Southwestern 
States 

13.  Brachynemurus    carrizonus    (Myrmeleonids)    Southwestern 

States 

14.  Panorpa  nuptialis  (Panorpidae)  Texas 

15.  Brachynemurus    carrizonus    (Myrmeleonidae)    Southwestern 

States 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXIV. 


THE  ANT-LIONS 

(Family  Mynneleonidce.) 

The  so-called  ant-lions  are  interesting  creatures  which  have 
long  attracted  the  attention  of  naturalists  and  of  nature  students. 
The  average  American  country  boy  knows  the  ant-lion  pits  in 
the  sand  about  as  well  as  he  knows  the  curious  caddis  worms  in 
the  brooks.  It  is  rather  a  large  group,  and  about  thirty  or  more 
species  are  known  in  the  United  States,  three  hundred  or  more 
comprising  the  number  of  described  species  in  the  entire  world. 

The  adult  flies  have  short  clubbed  antennae  and  four  reticu- 
late wings,  and  are  not  especially  attractive  in  their  personal 
appearance. 

They  vary  considerably  in  size,  and  some  of  them  have  a 
wing  expanse  of  four  inches. 

The  eggs  must  be  laid  in  the  sand,  and  the  larvas  when 
hatched  immediately  begin  to  construct  little  pits.  They  have 
flat  heads  and  long  jaws,  and  scrape  a  load  of  sand  on  the  head 
by  means  of  the  front  legs,  and  then  jerking  the  head  suddenly 
upwards  and  backwards  throw  the  sand  to  a  distance.  The 
future  pit  is  planned  as  to  size,  and  the  larva  first  excavates  a 
circular  groove  in  the  way  just  described.  Then  it  makes  an- 
other circle  within  the  first  and  so  on  until  a  conical  pit  results,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  the  larva  remains  in  hiding.  The  sand  on 
the  sides  lies,  when  the  pit  is  finished,  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
least  disturbance  causes  it  to  slide  toward  the  bottom,  and  when 
an  ant  or  some  other  small  insect  reaches  the  verge  he  is  apt  to 
slip  rapidly  toward  the  open  jaws  of  the  larva  waiting  to  receive 
him  at  the  bottom.  In  case,  however,  by  great  activity,  he 
seems  likely  to  escape  over  the  margin  again,  his  fall  is  assisted 
by  the  ant-lion  at  the  bottom,  which  throws  little  showers  of 
sand  upwards,  and  these  showers  falling  upon  the  struggling 
insect  hasten  its  descent. 

Any  little  deposit  of  sand  beneath  buildings  or  at  the  bottom 


The  Ant- Lions 

of  cliffs  along  sandy  banks  in  the  warm  sunshine  may  be  found 
to  contain  numbers  of  these  pits.  Large  collections  of  them  will 
frequently  be  found  together,  which  means  that  one  or  more 
females  have  deposited  their  eggs  in  the  same  general  vicinity. 
The  sand  must  be  dry,  and  hence  usually  is  in  a  warm,  sunny 
place.     When  it  is  damp  the  larva  cannot  dig  a  good  pit. 

Professor  O.  Lugger,  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Entomological 
Society  of  Washington,  told  an  interesting  story  of  how  a  load 
of  sand  being  carted  across  a  western  prairie,  far  from  any 
stream  and  miles  from  any  other  accumulation  of  sand,  was 
accidentally  spilled  through  the  breaking  down  of  the  cart,  and 
how,  after  a  comparatively  short  time,  he  found  this  sand  con- 
taining many  ant-lion  pits.  This  instance  indicates  that  the 
strong-flying  adults  are  widely  distributed  and  must  be  in  the 
habit  of  flying  long  distances  in  search  of  proper  places  to  lay 
their  eggs.  There  is,  of  course,  also  a  bare  possibility  that  the 
eggs  were  already  contained  in  the  sand. 

The  jaws  are  enormous  and  are  toothed,  and  each  jaw  is 
grooved  deeply  on  the  under  side. 

After  the  victim  is  practically  consumed  the  remains  are 
jerked  away  by  the  head  just  as  the  sand  is  jerked  up  in 
excavation. 

The  duration  of  the  life  of  the  ant-lion  larva  is  variable, 
depending  largely  upon  the  abundance  of  food,  just  as  with 
some  of  the  other  predatory  larvae  which  we  have  recently  men- 
tioned. They  are  able  to  undergo  long  fasts,  in  which  event  the 
transformation  may  become  indefinitely  postponed,  but  when 
ants  and  other  food  are  plentiful  they  reach  full  growth  in  com- 
paratively short  time,  and  spin  circular  cocoons  in  the  sand, 
making  them  of  silk,  to  which,  since  it  is  gummy  when  spun, 
grains  of  sand  adhere.  Within  the  cocoon  the  larva  usually 
passes  the  winter. 

There  is  need  of  careful  study  of  any  one  of  our  common 
ant-lions.  The  eggs  should  be  described;  the  number  of  molts 
of  the  larva  should  be  known,  and  the  duration  of  the  different 
stages  under  differing  circumstances  should  be  determined.  It  is 
probable  that  with  most,  if  not  all  of  the  species,  there  is  one 
generation  annually. 


THE  APHIS-LIONS 

(Family  Hcmcrobiida;.) 

The  insects  of  this  group  are  medium-sized  or  large  lace- 
winged  flies,  the  wings  being  often  rather  dark  colored  and 
spotted  with  dark  spots.  There  are  about  thirty  species  in  the 
United  States. 

Their  larvae  are  active,  predatory  creatures,  with  long, 
pointed,  sickle-shaped  jaws,  with  which  they  pierce  the  bodies 
of  plant-lice  and  other  soft  insects,  sucking  their  juices  through 
grooves  along  the  inside  of  each  jaw.  Some  of  these  larvae  are 
furnished  with  tubercles  along  the  side  of  the  body,  the  tubercles 
being  clothed  with  hair,  and  they  have  the  curious  habit  of 
covering  themselves  with  the  skins  of  victims  which  they  have 
destroyed.  The  tubercles  and  the  long  hairs  serve  to  hold  these 
remains  in  place.  One  of  these  little  larvae  will  thus  disguise 
itself  to  such  an  extent  that  it  cannot  be  recognized  as  an  insect. 
The  cocoons  are  spherical. 

There  are  some  very  interesting  forms  belonging  to  this 
family  which  are  aquatic  in  their  early  stages.  Needham  says 
that  those  of  the  genus  Sisyra  are  very  curious-looking  objects  in 
the  larval  stage.  They  live  in  or  on  fresh  water  sponges,  cling- 
ing closely  to  the  surface  of  the  sponge  or  hiding  in  it,  covering 
themselves  with  debris.  Those  of  the  genus  Climacia  are  also 
aquatic  in  the  early  stages,  according  to  Needham,  living  in  the 
same  places. 

A  good  representative  full  life  history  is  needed  in  this  family. 


THE  GOLDEN-EYED  LACE-IVINGED   FLIES 

(Family  CInysopida:.) 

These  little  insects  are  known  as  the  golden-eyed  lace-winged 
flies.  They  are  generally  green  in  color,  and  their  eyes,  while 
appearing  brown  in  some  lights,  have  a  distinct  yellowish,  almost 
phosphorescent  or  metallic  glint  in  other  lights,  which  accounts 
for  the  name  golden-eyed.  They  are  sometimes  appropriately 
called  stink  flies.  The  uncautious  observer,  attracted  by 
their  beauty,  on  handling  them  is  at  once  conscious  of  a  dis- 
agreeable and  very  strong  odor  which  is  with  difficulty  removed 
from  the  fingers  by  soap  and  water. 

The  eggs  of  these  little  flies  are  very  curious.  Each  is  placed 
at  the  extremity  of  a  long  slender  stalk,  which  is  a  most  necessary 
method  of  egg-placing,  on  account  of  the  voracity  and  omnivorous 

habits  of  the  newly 
hatched  larvae.  If  they 
were  laid  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  leaf  side  by 
side,  as  is  the  case 
with  so  many  other 
19.— Chrysopa  plorabunda.  insects,  the  first  larva 

(After  K.Uy.)  ^j^j^j^  hatched  WOUld 

eat  up  all  of  the  other  eggs,  but,  issuing  as  it  does  from  the  egg 
on  the  top  of  this  long  inedible  stalk,  finding  himself  on  the  leaf 
there  is  nothing  for  him  to  eat  unless  he  searches  for  plant-lice,  of 
which  there  is  generally  an  abundance  nearby.  The  eggs  are  usu- 
ally deposited  on  leaves  or  twigs,  and,  with  wise  foresight,  cus- 
tomarily in  the  middle  of  a  colony  of  plant-lice,  and  the  young  larvae 
after  hatching  begin  immediately  to  feed  upon  the  nearest  prey. 
They  are  most  voracious,  and  insert  their  long,  pointed,  sickle- 
shaped  jaws  (like  those  of  the  Hemerobiids)  into  the  body  of  the 
nearest  soft-bodied  insect.  It  should  be  stated  first,  however,  that 
on  hatching,  the  upper  end  of  the  egg  is  cut  off  by  the  larval  jaws. 


The  Golaen-Eyed  Lace-Winged   Flies 


The  young  larva  has  an  extremely  large  head,  and  the  sides 
of  its  body  are  armed  with  immense  curved  hairs,  which  give  it 
a  very  ferocious  appearance.  It  crawls  down  the  egg  stalk  until 
it  reaches  the  object  upon  which  it  is  placed.  On  reaching  a 
young  plant-louse  it  grasps  it  between  its  long  curved  jaws  and 
rolls  it  one  way  or  the  other,  the  juicy  contents  being  rapidly  ex- 
tracted. It  seems  always  hungry  and  always  to  be  feeding  when 
it  can  find  anything  upon  which  to  feed,  and  its  rapidity  of  growth 
is  limited  only  by  the  abundance  of  the  food  supply.     It  will  eat 


Fig.  120. — Chrysopa  oculata:     a,  eggs;  h,  full-grown  larva;  c,  foot  of  same; 
</,  same  de%'Ouring  a  Psylla;  d,  cocoon;/",  adult  insect;  g,  head  of  same; 
h,  adult,  natural  size — all  enlarged  except  /;.     (After  Marlatt.) 

one  of  its  own  brothers  as  quickly  as  any  other  insect,  and  when 
nearly  full  grown  its  jaws  are  strong  enough  to  pierce  the  skin  of 
a  human  being.  In  Toronto,  Canada,  I  once  felt  a  sharp  prick  on 
the  knuckle  of  one  of  my  fingers,  and  on  looking  down  found 
one  of  these  larvae  with  both  jaws  sticking  through  the  skin  and 
pumping  away  with  its  body  in  an  effort  to  get  some  nourish- 
ment. I  watched  it  for  some  time  under  a  lens  with  some  interest, 
and  am  glad  to  state  that  it  did  not  seem  satisfied  with  its  meal. 

2^3 


The  Golden-Eyed  Lace-Winged  Flies 

The  insect  transforms  to  pupa  within  the  interior  of  a  white 
spherical,  sillcen  cocoon,  which  is  very  characteristic  in  appear- 
ance, and  the  adult  escapes  through  a  circular  hole  to  which  the 
cap  remains  attached  like  a  lid. 

The  golden-eyed  lace-winged  flies  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant enemies  of  the  injurious  plant-lice  which  swarm  upon 
many  valuable  plants  especially  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer. 
The  mother  fly  lays  her  eggs  where  possible  in  the  midst  of 
colonies  of  plant-lice,  and  these  are  rapidly  swept  out  of  existence 
after  the  eggs  are  hatched. 

A  few  of  these  lace-winged  fly  larvae  have  the  same  habit 
which  we  have  described  as  occurring  with  the  Hemerobiids,  of 
covering  themselves  with  the  skins  of  their  victims.  Hubbard 
has  studied  a  species  which  feeds  upon  bark-lice,  tearing  the 
scales  loose  from  the  bark  and  devouring  the  soft  contents,  and 
then  adding  a  portion  of  the  debris  to  the  load  on  its  back. 

Unfortunately,  these  beneficial  lace-winged  flies  are  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  certain  parasitic  chalcis  flies  which  sting  their 
cocoons.  The  species  of  the  interesting  genus  Isodromus  seem 
to  confine  their  attacks  exclusively  to  the  cocoons  of  lace- winged 
flies. 


Life  History  of  a  Golden-Eye 

(Chrysopa  oculata  Say.^ 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  species  in  this  group,  and  is 
often  mentioned  in  books  on  economic  entomology  as  destroying 
plant-lice  and  other  injurious  insects.  The  only  observer  to  de- 
scribe its  life  history  with  any  detail,  however,  is  Marlatt,  from 
whose  observations  the  following  statements  are  drawn. 

The  eggs,  instead  of  being  deposited  in  rather  large  groups, 
as  is  the  case  with  other  species,  are  distributed  almost  invariably 
singly  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  rarely  two  are  found  together 
upon  the  same  stalk.  The  young  larva  cuts  off  the  upper  end  of 
the  egg  and  on  emerging  crawls  down  the  stalk  and  begins  its 
search  for  food.  Approaching  the  egg  of  the  pear  tree  Psylla, 
for  example,  it  immediately  grasps  it  between  its  long  curved 
mandibles  and  rapidly  extracts  the  juicy  contents.  This  is  done 
with  great  celerity,  the  dry  shell  is  cast  aside,  and  the  whole 
224 


The  Golden-Eyed  Lace-\A^inged    Flies 


operation  frequently  takes  less  than  a  minute.  The  larva  then 
eats  anything  in  the  shape  of  a  living  insect  which  comes  its  way. 
It  is  totally  fearless,  and  attacks  with  eagerness  insects  much  larger 
than  itself.  After  ten  days  it  becomes  full  grown  (these  observa- 
tions were  made  in  Maryland  in  July)  and  spins  up  in  the  curl  of 
a  leaf,  or  in  any  partial  protection,  constructing  a  delicate,  slightly 
oval  but  nearly  spherical  silken  cocoon,  which  is  attached  to  the 
leaf  by  silken  threads.  This 
cocoon  is  very  small  in 
comparison  with  both  the 
larva  which  spins  it  and 
the  adult  which  emerges 
from  it,  and  is  less  than  an 
eighth  ofan  inch  long.  The 
adult  emerges  in  from  ten 
to  fourteen  days,  cutting 
off  the  upper  end  of  the 
cocoon  in  a  neat  cap.  It 
does  not  seem  to  be  known 
whether  this  cap  is  partially 
cut  by  the  larva,  or  whether, 
as  with  other  Neuropterous 
insects,  the  pupa  becomes 
active  before  transforming 
and  cuts  the  cap  through 
which  the  fly  emerges. 

The  adult  insect  is  pea- 
green  in  color,  and  when 
alive  has  brownish  eyes 
with  greenish  reflections. 
It  is  very  helpless,  does  not 
feed,  and  remains  concealed  in  low  grass  during  the  day  becom- 
ing active  in  the  evening  and  depositing  its  eggs  at  that  time. 
Helpless  as  it  is,  the  disgusting  odor  which  it  emits  when 
handled  is  probably  its  chief  means  of  protection  from  its 
natural  enemies. 


Fig.    I2t. — Chrysopa  oculata:  newly 

hatched  larva,  with  under  side  of 

head  and  claw  at  side — greatly 

enlarged.     (After  Marlatt.) 


225 


PLANT-LICE,    SCALE    INSECTS, 
TRUE    BUGS,    ETC. 

(Order  Hcjniptcra.) 

This  is  anotlier  of  the  old  and  great  orders  of  insects.  It  is 
one  of  the  original  Linnean  orders  and  comprises  those  insects 
known  as  the  true  bugs,  true  lice  and  scale  insects.  Nearly  20,000 
species  have  been  described,  but,  as  with  the  other  big  orders, 
very  many  more  yet  remain  to  be  studied,  probably  at  least 
three  times  as  many  as  are  now  known. 

Although  extremely  variable  in  form  and  structure,  all  of  the 
Hemiptera  have  the  mouth-parts  formed  for  piercing  and  sucking 
(not  biting)  and  their  metamorphoses  are  incomplete,  the  young 
bug  being  active  and  formed  much  like  the  old  one.  In  those 
which  have  wings  the  wings  are  of  two  distinct  types.  In  one 
suborder  the  forewings  are  thickened  at  the  base  and  the  thinner 
end  parts  lap  over  on  the  back.  In  the  other  type  the  forewings 
are  of  about  the  same  thickness  throughout  and  are  usually  held 
in  repose  sloping  in  a  roof-shaped  manner  at  the  sides  of  the 
body. 

The  order  as  a  whole  is  a  most  injurious  one  in  its  relations 
with  man.  Although  some  of  the  true  bugs  prey  upon  injurious 
insects  the  destruction  of  plants  accomplished  by  others  offsets 
by  far  this  benefit.  In  fact  Sharp  says:  "  if  anything  were  to 
exterminate  the  enemies  of  Hemiptera,  we  ourselves  should 
probably  be  starved  in  the  course  of  a  few  months." 

The  Hemiptera  are  divided  into  three  suborders  which  we 
shall  consider  separately.     They  are  distinguised  as  follows: 
226 


Plant-Lice,  Scale  Insects,  True  Bugs,  Etc. 

Table  of  Suborders 

Beak  jointed,  hard  and  horny. 

Beak  unjointed,  fleshy ' 

.-Wings  when  present  of  the  same' thickness' throughout  "and 

bodv    h"  ^  '"  '  ^'°P'"^    P°^'^'°"    ^t  the  sides  of  the 
body,  beak  inserted  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  head 

''"^iS'f  T^'  "  'T'  '-'^^  thinn^S^m^'SS 
overlap;  beak  inserted  on  the  front  part  of  the  head 

.-^ng,ess-species:parasmc'upon'n.an'an3'St.(fSK: 
'     Suborder  Anoplura 


SUBORDER  HOMOPTERA 

A  curious  and  important  assemblage  of  insects  belong  to  the 
Homoptera.  Those  creatures  which  we  know  as  leaf-hoppers, 
tree-hoppers,  cicadas,  plant-lice,  flea-lice,  bark-lice,  scale  insects, 
mealy  bugs,  and  white  flies  all  belong  here.  Their  name  is 
legion  and  they  are  without  exception,  destructive  to  plant  life. 
Their  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking,  and  their  transforma- 
tions are  incomplete.  Their  forewings  are  not  modified,  as  with 
the  Heteroptera,  or  true  bugs,  but  are  more  normal  and  are 
usually  held  roof-like  over  the  back  when  at  rest.  The  front  of 
the  head  is  always  bent  under  so  that  it  touches  the  base  of  the 
front  legs.  Beyond  these  points,  their  structure  is  very  diverse, 
and  beyond  the  fact  that  all  are  plant  feeders  their  habits  are  also 
very  diverse.  In  their  life  histories  some  of  them,  particularly 
the  plant-lice,  the  bark-lice  and  the  periodical  cicada  (or  so- 
called  seventeen-year  locust),  present  some  of  the  most  interest- 
ing, and,  in  fact,  some  of  the  most  astonishing,  phenomena  in 
the  whole  field  of  biology.  The  progressive  degradation,  after 
birth,  of  the  female  of  the  scale  insects,  from  an  active,  highly 
animated  creature  to  a  blind,  legless,  protoplasmic  globule,  and 
the  contrasting  development  of  the  male  of  the  same  species, 
from  a  minute,  crawling  mite  to  a  virile,  winged,  active  and 
highly  organized  creature  whose  head  is  practically  all  eyes,  is 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  life  histories  among  all  insects, 
while  the  alternate  forward  and  backward  development  which 
occurs  in  the  genus  IVlargarodes  in  this  family  is  even  more 
strange.  Then,  too,  the  remarkablyadapted  parthenogenetic  life 
of  the  plant-lice,  with  their  alternation  of  food  plants  and  their 
relations  with  ants,  make  their  study  one  of  fascinating  interest. 

The  Homoptera  is  a  large  group  of  insects.  No  one  knows 
how  large.  The  plant-lice  and  the  scale  insects  of  Europe  and 
North  America  have  been  rather  well  studied,  largely  on  account 
of  the  economic  interest  which  attaches  to  them.  Yet,  even  from 
North  America,  many  new  species  are  being  found,  even  in  these 
228 


Plate  XXV. 
NEUROPTEROID    INSECTS 

FIG. 

1.  Maracanda  conspersa  (Myrmeleonidse)  Eastern  States 

2.  Myrmeleon  immaculatum  (Myrmeleonidae)  U.  S. 

^.  Myrmeleon  rusticus  (Myrmeleonid;e)  Southern  States 
4.  Brachynemurus  peregrinus  ?  (Myrmeleonids)  Western  States 
s.  Brachynemurus  longipalpus  ?  (Myrmeleonidae)  Southwestern 
States 

6.  Brachynemurus  nigrilabris  ?  (Myrmeleonidit)  Western  States 

7.  Brachynemurus  peregrinus  i  (Myrmeleonidae)  Western  States 

8.  Brachynemurus  longipalpus  i  (Myrmeleonids)  Southwestern 

States 

9.  Brachynemurus  nigrilabris  i  (Myrmeleonidae)  Western  States 

10.  Brachynemurus    sackeni  ?    (Myrmeleonidae)     Southwestern 

States 

11.  Acanthaclisis  congener  (Myrmeleonidae)  Western  States 

12.  Brachynemurus    sackeni  3     (Myrmeleonidae)     Southwestern 

States 
1  ^.  Acanthaclisis  hageni  3  (Myrmeleonidae)  Southwestern  States 
14.  Acanthaclisis  hageni?  (Myrmeleonidae)  Southwestern  States 


.v?J>^' 


/ 


A 


r~^ 


I 


Suborder  Homoptera 

groups,  each  year.  The  tree-hoppers  and  the  leaf-hoppers  and 
some  of  the  other  groups,  however,  are  very  poorly  known,  and, 
in  fact,  the  whole  suborder,  as  it  is  represented  in  tropical 
regions,  is  but  slightly  known.  Collectors  in  out-of-the-way 
places  have  neglected  this  group,  and  doubtless  very  many 
thousands  of  species  will  yet  be  discovered  and  described.  A 
small  group  of  American  workers,  including  Messrs.  Osborn, 
Van  Duzee,  Baker,  Gillette  and  Ball,  are  doing  admirable  work 
upon  the  leaf-hoppers  and  tree-hoppers,  but  there  is  still  room 
for  many  more  investigators  of  these  interesting  insects.  They 
are  easily  preserved  and  make  an  interesting  collection.  The 
study  of  the  scale  insects  may  safely  be  left  to  the  small  army  of 
economic  workers  who  have  taken  up  their  study  during  the 
past  ten  years,  but  the  plant-lice  need  many  more  students.  The 
difficulty  of  properly  preserving  the  insects  of  this  group,  since 
they  must  be  kept  in  alcohol  or  formalin  or  mounted  upon 
microscope  slides,  doubtless  deters  many  from  entering  upon 
their  study.  But  the  life  histories  of  very  few  of  our  North 
American  species  are  known,  and  many  important  and  most 
interesting  facts  are  still  to  be  learned  about  a  host  of  species. 


Table  of  Families 

Beak  plainly   inserted  in  the  head;  feet   with  three  segments; 

antennae  minute,  bristle-like i 

Beak  apparently  inserted  between  the  forelegs;  feet  with  one  or 
two  segments;  antennae  usually  prominent,  but  sometimes 

wanting 5 

I — -Ocelli  three  in  number;  the  males  with  musical  organs 

Family  Cicadidce  ® 

Only  two  ocelli  or  none ;  males  not  musical 2 

2 — Antennae  inserted  in  front  of  and  between  the  eyes 3 

Antennae  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks  beneath  the  eyes 

Family  Fitlgoridce  ^ 

3 — Prothorax  not  prolonged  above  the  abdomen 4 

Prothorax  prolonged  into  a  horn  or  point  above  abdomen .... 

Family  Mcinbracidce  "^ 

4 — Hind  shanks  with  one  or  two  stout  teeth  below  and  at  tip 

with  a  crown  of  short,  stout  spines ....  Family  Cercopidce  o 

Hind  shanks  with  a  row  of  spines  below VarnxXy  Jassidce  0 

229 


Suborder  Homoptera 

Feet  usually  with  two  segments;  wings  when  present  four  in 

number 6 

5 — Wings  transparent 7 

Wings  opaque,  whitish Family  Alcyrodidiv 

Feet  with  only  one  segment;  males  without  mouth-parts  and 
with  two  wings  only;  females  wingless  and  scale-like  or 
gall-like  in  form,  and  covered  with  wax  in  plates,  layers 

or  in  powdery  form Family  Coccuia' 

6 — Hind  thighs  swollen;  antennae  with  nine  or  ten  segments-  •  . 
Family  Psyl/fda' 

Legs  long  and  slender;  antennae  with  three  to  seven  segments 
Family  Aphididce 


230 


THE  HARyEST  FLIES  OR  CICADAS 


'  -  (Family  Cicadida' ) 

This  is  a  group  of  insects  commonly  known  by  the  popular 
name  of  "harvest  flies"  or  cicadas,  and  frequently  in  this  country 
by  the  erroneous  term  "locust."     We 

have     already     seen    that    the    term  \  ^^  -^*^  Mil^\ 

"locusts"  should  properly  be  applied  \ot 
to  the  long-horned    grasshoppers    of 
the  true  family  Locustidae,  although   it 
is  also,   especially  by  British  subjects, 
applied    to   the    short-horned   grass- 


f\F"ig.    122. — Periodical    Cicada;    n,  male,  of  the 
large  form;  i^,  male,  of  the  small  form. 
(After  Riley.) 

hoppers  and  especially  the  destructive 
species.  The  family  Cicadidae  is  a 
group  of  large  insects  containing  very 
many  tropical  species.  Their  bodies 
are   large,  with  a  wide,    blunt  head,  -^j.?-  '^i-Twigs  punctured  by 

f'    '  '       Cicadas,  illustratmg  manner  of 

and  with  prominent  eyes  on  the  outer       breaking.    (After  RUey.j 
231 


The  Harvest  Flies  or  Cicadas 

angles.  The  head  has  three  ocelli  placed  triangularly  on  the 
summit  between  the  compound  eyes  and  the  antennae  consist  of 
a  short  basal  joint  surmounted  by  a  bristle  which  is  divided  into 
about  five  segments.  The  tropical  forms  are  sometimes  brightly 
colored  but  the  species  which  occur  in  the  United  States  are 
usually  greenish  marked  with  black. 

The  commonest  form  in  the  more  Northern  States  is  the  so- 
called  "dog-day  harvest  fly  "  or  "  lyreman  " — the  insect  which 
every  summer,  toward  the  end  of  July  or  early  in  August,  begins 


QHg.  124. —  Kggs  of  the  Periodical  Cicada. 
(After  Riley.) 

its  doleful  but  resounding  buzzing  hum  in  the  tree  tops.  This 
sound  is  familiar  throughout  the  hot  days  of  the  late  summer 
and  is  frequently  more  noticeable  in  the  early  morning  and 
about  sundown.  This,  however,  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  day  noises  of  a  town  or  city  are  less  noticeable  at  such 
times.  It  is  supposed  that  this  is  an  annual  species,  /.  e., 
that  it  has  but  one  generation  annually,  the  larvae  living  in  the 
ground  through  only  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year.  It  may 
be,  however,  that  it  has  a  much  longer  larval  period,  and  that 
only  its  great  abundance  and  the  intermingling  of  generations 
accounts  for  its  annual  occurrence  in  the  adult  condition. 
This  is  a  point  which  should  be  investigated  as  its  life  history 
has  never  been  thoroughly  worked  out.  There  are  other 
cicadas  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  some  of  them  rather 
small  in  size,  like'^^efiigia  hieroglyphica,  and  others  large,  like 
the  higxJicada  emarginata. 

232 


The  Harvest  Flies  or  Cicadas 

Life  History  of  the  "Seventeen-year   Locust" 

^-'(Cicada  scptcndccini,  h.J 

This  insect,  commonly  i<nown  as  the  periodical  cicada  or 
seventeen-year  locust,  is  taken  here  because  it  is  the  only  species 
of  the  family  whose  life  history  is  thoroughly  well  understood. 
It  is  probably  not  typical  in  its  very  extended  larval  life,     in  the 
North  this  insect  remains  either  as  larva  or  pupa  underground  for 
seventeen  years.     In  the  South  it  develops  in  thirteen  years,  thus 
giving  rise  to  two  races  which  are  known  as  the  septendecim  and 
tredecim  races.     The  dividing  line  between  the  two  races  corre- 
sponds fairly  well  with  the  northern  margin  of  the  so-called  lower 
austral  life  zone.     In    some  localities  confusion  arises  from  the 
fact  that  the  insect  makes  its  appearance  at  shorter  intervals  than 
seventeen  years.     This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  insect   appears   in  distinct   broods  some  of 
which  overlap  the  territory  also  inhabited  by  other 
broods.     There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  suppose 
that  the  length  of  life  of  any  larva  fs  of  shorter  dura- 
tion than  seventeen  years  in  the  North  and  thirteen 
in  the  South.     The  largest  of  the  Northeastern  broods 
made  its  last  appearance  in  1885,  and  is  due  again 
in   1902.      It  will  then  be  found  in  great  numbers 
throughout  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  northern   Virginia,  Ohio,  southern 
Michigan,    Indiana,    eastern    Illinois,    Kentucky  and 
down  the  Appalachian  chain  of  mountains  through 
North  Carolina  into  northern  Georgia.     It  will  also 
appear  in  a  few  localities  in  Vermont,  New  York,  Wis- 
consin, West  Virginia  and  Tennessee.  Healed  ov( 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  small  twigs  and  branches  Srj-'^ 
which  are  pierced  by  the  ovipositor  and  in  this  way         "     '  ' 
the  insect  does    practically  the  only  damage  which   it  accom- 
plishes.    They  occur  in  enormous  swarms  and  the  weakenino-  of 
the  twigs,  caused  by  the  punctures,  causes  many  of  them  to  be 
broken  off  by  the  wind.     The  young  ant-like  larva  hatches  from 
the  eggs  a  few  weeks  after  oviposition,  escapes  from  the  wounded 
limb,  falls  to  the  ground  and  burrows  quickly  out  of  sight,  where 
it  forms  for  itself  a  little  underground  chamber  near  some  rootlet, 
233 


■'y-J 


The  Harvest  Flies  or  Cicadas 

remaining  there,  isolated  from  others  and  moving,  probably  very 
slowly,  for  seventeen  or  thirteen  years.  It  molts  four  times,  the 
first  time  after  from  one  year  to  eighteen  months,  the  second  after 
two  additional  years,  the  third  after  three  years  more,  and  the 
fourth  after  another  period  of  three  or  four  years,  leaving  three  or 
four  additional  years  to  elapse  before  the  insect  assumes  the  so- 
called  pupal  state.  The  anterior  legs  of  the  larva  are  curiously  en- 
larged and  resemble  the  cutting  jaws  of  biting  insects.  They  are 
especially  designed  for  digging  and  transporting  earth.  The  food 
which  it  consumes  is  obtained  probably  from  the  soil  humus  and 
to  some  extent  from  the  roots  of 
plants.  After  the  change  to  the 
pupal  condition  the  insect  bur- 
rows to  the  top  of  the  ground 
and,  emerging,  crawls  up  the 
trunks  of  trees  where    the  skin 

0  Fig.  I26.-Cicada  septendecim,  young  ,^5  ^^^  ^j^e  adult  insect  isSUeS. 

larva.     (After  Riley.)  ^ 

Occasionally,  in  certain  kinds  of 
soil  or  when  the  pupa  has  reached  the  surface  too  early,  it  will 
construct  mud  chimneys  from  the  summit  of  which  it  eventu- 
ally issues. 

In  the  great  cicada  year  of  1885,  Dr.  Riley  started  an  interest- 
ing series  of  experiments  in  order  to  determine  whether  the 
duration  of  the  larval  stage  with  the  thirteen-year  race  would  be 
prolonged  by  transporting  the  eggs  north  and  accelerated  by 
transporting  eggs  to  the  south.  This  was  done  on  a  very  large 
scale  and  at  several  localities,  the  exact  locations  being  carefully 
marked  and  recorded.  No  positive  results  have  as  yet  been  ob- 
tained; that  is  to  say,  no  undoubted  specimens  have  issued  at 
either  north  or  south. 

The  ultimate  fate  of  this  interesting  species  is  undoubtedly  ex- 
tinction and  its  numbers  are  rapidly  growing  less.  One  of  the 
comparatively  few  insects  upon  which  the  English  sparrow  feeds 
with  avidity  is  the  periodical  cicada  and  many  thousands  of  them 
are  destroyed  by  sparrows  each  time  they  make  their  appearance 
and  before  they  lay  their  eggs. 


THE  LANTERN-FLIES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 


p) 


(Family   FiilgoridcE.) 


To  this  group  belong  the  well-known  lantern-flies  of  the 
tropics,  but  it  also  includes  a  host  of  other  species  of  diverse 
forms  which  are  separated  into  no  less  than    13  subfamilies  of 


^t 


Fig.  127. — Helicoptera 
sp.     (After  Uhler.J 


0  Fig.  12S. — Scolops 

sulcipes. 

(After  Uhler.) 


which  the  Delphacinse  and  Flatinae  are  best  represented  in  the 
United  States.  The  tropical  forms  are  large  and  bright-colored 
and  the  true  lantern-flies  are  so-called  because  of  the  enormous 


'i'  Fig.  129. — Otiocenis  coquiferti. 
(After    U/iler.) 

enlargement  of  the  fore-part  of  the  head  which  was  formerly 

thought  to  be  luminous.     All  are  vegetable  feeders.      Our  Ameri- 

235 


The  Lantern-Flies  and  Their  Alhes 


can  forms  are  all  small,  some  resembling  leaf-hoptpers  and  others 
looking  almost  like  little  moths.  The  green  Flats  ( Chlorockroa 
conica)  feeds  on  corn  and  the  foliage  of  the  sugar  beet  in  Illinois 
and  elsewhere. 


Life  History  of  the  Frosted    Lightning  Hopper 

0      (Ormciiis  pruinosa,  Say.^ 

The  so-called  "frosted  lightning  hopper,"  as  this  little  insect 
is  called,  belongs  to  the  subfamily  Flatinae,  and  is  one  of  the 
moth-like  forms.  It  varies  from  lead-color  to  pale  green,  and  is 
dusted  over  with  a  fine  white  powder,  which  makes  it  appear 
frosted.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  small  twigs  of  sassafras  and  other 
trees  in  a  continuous  raised  slit.  They  are  dirty  yellow  in  color, 
each  I  mm.  long,  and  are  laid  on  their  sides  end  to  end. 

About  the  middle  of  May  these  eggs  hatch  into  delicate  little 
hoppers,  which  immediately  settle  on  the  new  growth,  insert 
their  beaks  and  begin  to  pump  up  sap.  They  then  copiously 
secrete  a  powdery  waxy  secretion  which  completely  covers 
them.  They  grow  slowly,  molt  three  times  and  the  adult  insect 
issues  from  the  last  nymphal  skin  about  September,  soon  after- 
wards commencing  to  lay  the  hibernating  eggs. 


236 


THE  TREE-HOPPERS 

D 
(Family  Membi-acidce.) 

These  insects  comprise  some  of  the  most  grotesque  species 
which  nature  has  evolved.  Comstock  offers  the  apt  suggestion 
that  "Nature  must  have  been  in  a  joking  mood  when  tree-hop- 
pers were  developed."     The  antennae  are  inserted  in  front  of  and 


Fig.  ijo.^Ceresa  taurina.     (After  Marlatt.) 


between  the  eyes  and  the  prothorax  is  prolonged  so  that  it  fre- 
quently covers  the  rest  of  the  body.  It  is  by  the  curious  modifica- 
tions of  this  prothorax  that  the  strange,  and  grotesque  forms  of 
the  insects  are  produced.     The  majority  of  these  modifications 

=37 


The    Tree-Hoppers 


have  been  developed  in  order  to  bring  about  protective  re- 
semblance since  by  these  modifications  the  insects  are  made  to 
look  like  different  plant  structures.  The  thorn-like  process  on 
the  thorax  of  the  common  Jittle  tree- 
hopper  of  the  hitter-sweeV  f  Eiichen- 
opa  biiiotata)  is  a  good  example.  The 
insects  customarily  rest  in  such  posi- 
tion along  the  twig  of  a  vine  th;it  they 
precisely  resemble  vegetable  thorns. 
This  family  like  so  many  others  reaches 
its  most  remarkable  development  in 
the  tropics  but  many  strange  forms 
occur  in  the  United  States.  The 
species  just  mentioned,  when  en- 
larged, bears  a  fanciful  resemblance  to 
the  partridge  and  was  once  the  sub- 
rvFig.  131.— Ceresa  taurina;  eggs  ject  of  a  charming  popular  article  by 

VJ     ^n^yonn^.    (After  Marlatt.J      ^^^     j^^^^     ^.„.^^     Hamilton    Gibson, 

entitled  "A  Queer  Little  Family  on  the  Bitter-Sweet,"  published 
in  the  Harper's  Monthly  for  August,  1893.  A  common  form  is 
the  little  hump-backed  species  known  as^Telemona  vwiiticola. 


^  Fig.  132. — Enchenopa  binotata.     (After  Ltiitiicr.) 

which  somtimes  swarms  upon  the  branches  of  the  Virginia 
cr,eeper  in  June.  Another  most  interesting  form  is  that  known 
lis'Entilia  sinuata,  which  is  found  upon  the  leaves  of  sun-flower 
and  other  annual  plants.  This  species  lays  its  eggs  in  the  mid- 
rib of  the  upper  leaves.  The  mother  insect  broods  over  her  eggs 
238 


jiiluoH  (XI 


Plate  XXVI. 
NEUROPTEROID    INSECTS 

FIG. 

1.  Hexagenia  bilineata  (Ephemeridx)  Eastern  States 

2.  Chrvsopa   nigricornis  (Chrysopidae)  Eastern  States 
}.   Uluiodes  hyalina  (Ascalaphidas)  Southern  States 

4.  Perla  flavescens  (Perlidae)  Eastern  States 

5.  Pteronarcys  nobilis  (Perlidae)  Northern  States 

6.  Ephemera  decora  (Ephemeridse)  Northern  States 

7.  Acanthaclisis  americana  (Myrmeleonidse)  Atlantic  Coast  States 

8.  Psainmoleon  ingeniosus  (Myrmeleonida;)  Western  States 

9.  Dendroleon  obsoletus  (Myrmeleonidae)  U.  S. 

10.  Brachynemurus  nebulosus  (Mvrmeleonidie)  Florida 

11.  Biachynemurus  abdominalis  (Myrmeleonids)  U.  S. 

12.  Glenurus  gratus  (Myrmeleonidse)  Southern  States 

13.  Brachynemurus  longicaudus  (Myrmeleonids)  Southern  States 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXVI. 


The    Tree-Hoppers 

until  they  are  hatched  and  the  young  from  the  time  of  hatching 
until  full  grown  are  constantly  attended  by  ants  which  are  at- 
tracted to  the  sweet  secretion  which  this  insect,  together  with 
many  others  of  the  same  family,  just  as  with  certain  of  the  Jas- 
sidae  exudes  from  its  anus. 


Life  History  of  tine  Buffaio  Tree-Hopper 


0, 


'(Ccrcsa  biibaltis.) 


This  little  insect  is  probably 
the  species  of  the  greatest  eco- 
nomic importance  of  any  of  this 
group  of  tree-hoppers.  It  is 
popularly  known  by  the  name 
of  the  "buffalo  tree-hopper."  Its 
popular  name  is  derived  from  its 
supposed  similarity  in  shape  to 
the  male  bison,  the  prothorax 
being  greatly  enlarged  towards 
the  head  and  projecting  at  the 
sides  into  two  strong  horns.     It 


Fig.  133. — Archasia  galeata. 
(After  Lugger.) 


■Q  Fig.  134. — Ceresa  bubalus.     (After  Marlatt.) 
239 


The    Tree-Hoppers 


is  common  all  through  the  United  States,  from  Missouri  north- 
wards into  Canada,  and  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  considerable 
damage  m  orchards,  particularly  to  young  trees  and  nursery 
stock.  The  injury  is  produced  by  the  cutting  of  the  small  limbs 
by  the  female  with  her  saw-like  ovipositor,  in  which  process  she 

makes  large  holes  through  the 
bark  in  which  the  eggs  are  in- 
serted in  clusters.  The  insect 
flies  with  a  loud  buzzing  noise 
from  tree  to  tree  and  is  very  shy. 
The  twigs  chosen  for  egg-laying 
are  preferably  those  of  two  or 
three  years  growth  and  various 
kinds  of  trees  are  selected. 
The  eggs  are  placed  in  small 
compound  groups  arranged  in 
two  nearly  parallel  or  slightly 
curved  slits.  About  a  minute 
is  required  for  the  insertion  of 
each  egg.  The  wound  is  made 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  a 
certain  cessation  of  growth  be- 
tween two  rows  of  eggs  to  pre- 


egg-scars.     ( Aftc, 


CFig.  i35.-CeresabuWs  eggs  and  old  yg^it  their  being  crushed  by  the 

rapid  growth  of  the  twig. 
Each  female  lays  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  eggs.  The 
insect  hibernates  in  the  egg  condition  and  the  young  hatch  in  the 
spring.  They  molt  three  or  four  times  before  becoming  full- 
grown  and  during  their  life  feed  upon  the  juices  of  the  tender 
twigs  and  leaves  by  inserting  their  beaks  and  pumping  up  the 
sap.  The  insect  in  its  early  stages  is  wingless  and  is  covered  on 
the  upper  side  along  the  centre  with  numerous  barbed  projections. 


THE  FROG -HOPPERS  OR  SPITTLE  INSECTS 

—     (Fmitily  Ccrcopidcc.) 

This  is  a  rather  large  fomiiy  comprising  mostly  rather  small 
insects,  many  of  which  are  known  as  "frog-hoppers"  or  "spittle 
insects."  The  antennae  are  placed  between  the  eyes,  there  are 
only  two  ocelli  and  the  thorax  is  not  strangely  modified  as  with 
the  IVlembracidae.  Few  insects  excite  more  interest  among 
moderately  observant  people  than  the  true  spittle  insects  which 
belong  to  the  subfamily  Aphrophorinae.  They  are  small,  rather 
slender,  brown,  clay-yellow  or  grayish  species,  and  after  hatching 
from  the  egg  live  in  little  masses  of  froth  resembling  spittle  on 
the  stems  of  plants  and  trees,  frequently  on 
grasses  and  weeds.  In  some  parts  of  the 
south,  according  to  Uhler,  the  negroes  think 
that  horse-flies  are  developed  from  these  froth 
specks.  When  abundant  they  may  do  con- 
siderable damage  to  pasture-lands.  '^  Phila:nus 
spitmarhis  unS  P.  lineattis  are  said  by  Fernald 
to  be  common  on  grass  in  Massachusetts. 
The  former  is  abundant  in  gardens  in  England 
and  was  probably  introduced  from  England  Fig.  i36!^ivionecphora 
into  this  country.  ^l"?'''^-    '^f''""', 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

The  eggs  are  laid  m  the  stems  of  plants 
in  the  autumn  and  hatch  in  the  spring,  it  was  formerly  thought 
that  the  spittle  that  soon  surrounds  the  young  insect  was  excreted 
from  the  anus,  but  Professor  E.  S.  Morse  has  recently  shown  that 
only  a  clear  liquid  containing  no  bubbles  is  thus  exuded  and  that 
the  air-bubbles  are  brought  in  by  a  constant  thrashing  about  of 
the  anal  end  of  the  body,  bringing  in  air  which  is  retained  as  bub- 
bles by  the  viscid  quality  of  the  liquid.  There  are  anal  append- 
ages which  are  probably  branchial  in  function,  according  to  Morse. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  purpose  of  the  frothy  mass  is  to  pro- 
tect the  soft-bodied  immature  insects  from  their  natural  enemies 
241 


The   Frog-Hoppers  or  Spittle  Insects 

—in  other  words  that  it  is  a  disguise.  But  it  renders  them  very 
conspicuous  and  once  their  true  nature  is  ascertained  they  are  all 
the  more  easily  found  by  then  enemies  and  as  a  matter  of  f;ict 
they  are  sought  for  by  certain  wasps  which  drag  them  out  from 
their  froth  and  carry  them  off  to  provision  their  nests. 

No  good  thorough  life  history  of  an  American  species  has 
been  published  and  here  is  an  interesting  and  novel  field  for 
some  observer. 


THE  LEAF-HOPPERS 


Q  (Family  Jassida.) 

This  group  of  insects,  which  comprises  the  forms  ordinarily 
Icnown  as  leaf-hoppers,  is  an  extensive  group,  comprising  a 
great  complexity  of  forms  and  by  most  modern 
writers  is  considered  as  having  superfamily  rank 
and  is  generally  termed  "Jassoidea."  They  are 
usually  slender  insects,  with  the  antennse  in- 
serted in  front  of  and  between  the  eyes  and 
having  the  hind  tibiae  with  a  row  of  spines  be- 
low.  They 


Fig.  137.  —  Proco- 
nia  undata.  ( From 
U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.) 


are  very 
abundant 
on      low- 


growing 
herbage  and  have  been 
shown  by  Professor  Her- 
bert Osborn  to  bring  about 
a  very  extensive  although 
probably  unnoticed  injury 
to  forage  plants  in  large 
grazing  ranges  in  the 
west  as  well  as  in  pasture 
lots  in  the  east.  He  shows 
that  on  an  acre  of  pasture 
land  there  frequently  exists 
one  million  leaf-hoppers  and 
that  this  million  hoppers 
consume  as  much  grass  as 
a  cow  if  not  more.  In  this 
restricted  sense  this  family 
includes  the  leaf-hoppers 
now  generally  placed  in  the 
family  Tettigonidse  which 


Fig.  138. — Thamnotettix  clittelferius. 
(After  Lugger.) 


The  Leaf-Hoppers 

are  distinguished  from  the  restricted  Jassidje  by  the  position  of 
the  ocelli.  Among  the  leaf-hoppers  which  may  be  especially 
mentioned  are  the  green  spindle-shaped  species  of  the  genus 
<3  Diedrocephala  which  are  found  abundantly  in  pasture  lands,  one 
species  (D.  mollipes)  occurring  commonly  in  the  salt  marshes  of 
the  Atlantic  States.  The  forms  belonging  to  the  genus  Proconia 
are  rather  widely  distributed  and  one  of  them  (P.  undata)  is 
responsible  for  most  of  the  stories  of  "  weeping  trees"  which 


-6- 

^-- Fig.  139. — Erythroneura  vitis.     ( After  JMailatt.) 

are  seen  in  the  newspapers.  These  insects  in  all  stages  (and  the 
species  of  several  other  genera  have  a  similar  habit)  eject  a  spray 
of  fluid  from  the  anus  when  disturbed  and,  when  occurring  abun- 
dantly upon  trees,  if  the  tree  be  shaken  what  seems  almost  like  a 
light  shower  of  rain  will  fall.  One  of  these  "  weeping  tree  mys- 
teries," so-called,  in  Texas  some  years  ago  "set  the  state  agog 
with  various  explanations  of  the  phenomenon,  ranging  from  the 
superstitious  credence  of  the  supernaturally  inclined  to  the  posi- 
tive denialand  derisive  laughter  of  the  constitutionally  skeptical." 
It  took  a  brave  newspaper  reporter  to  solve  the  mystery,  since  he 
alone  dared  to  climb  the  tree  and  investigate.  The  common 
leaf-hoppers  of  the  grape-vine,  erroneously  called  by  grape- 
growers  "  Thrips,"  are  known  as  Erythroneura  vitis  ^ndSTyplilo- 
cyba  vitifex.  They  frequently  cause  the  leaves  of  grape-vines  to 
turn  brown  and  wither.  ^!Agallia  sanguiiiolenta  prefers  open 
244 


The   Leaf-Hoppers 

sunny  places,  is  destructive  to  clover  and  attacks  a  great  variety  of 
useful  plants  such  as  cabbage,  celery,  turnips,  strawberry,  beets 
and  many  weeds. 


Typical   Life  History  of  a  Leaf- Hopper 

'(  DcltoccpJia  I  Its  ill  ivi  iciis .) 

This  little  leaf-hopper  is  one  of  the  species  which  is  com- 
monly found  in  pastures  and  meadows.  It  has  been  reared  upon 
young  wheat  plants  by  Professor  F.  M.  Webster.  The  females 
laid  their  eggs  in  November  in  the  tissue  of  the  leaves  and  the 
young  could  be  seen  developing  within  the  eggs  without  removal. 
They  were  especially  noticeable  just  prior  to  issuing  by  their  jet 
black  eyes.  A  few  days  after  hatching  the  young  leaf-hoppers 
molted  and  they  molted  again  twice  thereafter,  the  full-grown 
individuals  making  their  appearance  December  22d,  giving  a  life 
period  of  forty-one  days  from  the  egg  to  the  adult.  THe  species 
seems  to  hibernate  both  in  the  egg  state  and  in  the  adult  condi- 
tion and  to  have  several  generations  each  year.  Osborn  found 
the  eggs  inserted  under  the  skin  of  the  leaves  of  blue  grass, 
making  little  blister-like  swellings  near  the  tips  and  causing  them 
to  turn  yellow.  Those  which  hibernate  in  the  egg  state  issue 
in  great  numbers  in  grass  lands  early  in  May.  There  are  at  least 
two  generations  each  year,  the  young  being  numerous  in  late 
May  and  in  August  and  the  adults  in  June  and  in  the  fall.  Large 
numbers  have  been  seen  attracted  to  the  electric  lights  in  Illinois. 
(Forbes  &  Hart.) 


245 


THE  IVHITE  FLIES,   OR  A  LEY  ROD  IDS 

(Family  Aliyrodida.) 

This  family,  more  closely  allied  to  the  AphididcC  and 
Coccidse  than  to  any  others,  and  yet  widely  different  in  important 
features,  is  a  puzzling  and  abnormal  assemblage  of  insects.    They 


Fig.  140. — Aleyrodes  citri.     (From  Insect  Life.) 


are  very  small  insects,  frequently  minute,  and  infest  the  leaves  of 
plants,  usually  on  the  lower  side.  In  their  early  stages  they  are 
scale-like,  and  much  resemble  some  of  the  Coccidas.  Unlike  the 
Coccidse,  however,  the  development  of  the  two  sexes  is  prac- 
tically parallel,  and  both  males  and  females  are  active  and  winged. 
Differing  again  from  the  scale  insects,  there  are  two  pairs  of 
wings  instead  of  one  pair.  All  four  wings  are  covered  or  dusted 
with  a  whitish,  meal-like  secretion,  which  has  given  to  the  group 
the  popular  name  of  white  flies.  In  the  immature  stages  the 
246 


The  White  Fhes  or  Aleyrodids 

body  may  be  more  or  less  covered  by  a  secretion  of  wax, 
but  the  most  distinctive  character  is  the  presence  of  an  opening 
on  the  dorsum  of  the  last  abdominal  segment  which  is  known  as 
the  vasiform  orifice.  In  the  adults  the  antennae  are  seven- 
jointed,  and  the  eyes  are  usually  somewhat  constricted  near  the 
middle,  and  may  be  even  completely  divided.  The  wings  when 
at  rest  are  nearly  horizontal,  and  are  broad  and  well  rounded. 
The  wings  may  be  unspotted,  or  variously  spotted  or  banded. 
The  Aleyrodidae  do  not  constitute  a  large  group,  and  but  two 
genera  and  not  more  than  1 50  species  are  known.  Of  these  both 
genera  (Aleyrodes  and  Aleyrodicus)  are  known  in  the  United 
States,  and  rather  more  than  fifty  species  occur  within  our 
geographic  borders.  Doubtless  many  of  these  are  imported, 
since  they  occur  more  commonly  upon  greenhouse  plants  than 
upon  wild  indigenous  plants.  They  are  found  upon  both  herb- 
aceous plants  and  upon  forest  trees.  They  are  very  seldom 
serious  enemies  to  vegetation,  although  the  species  occurring  com- 
monly upon  the  orange  does  considerable  damage,  which  arises  not 
alone  from  the  actual  loss  of  sap  and  consequent  withering  of  the 
leaves  from  the  sucking  of  the  insect,  but  also  from  the  profuse 
quantity  of  smut  fungus,  the  spores  of  which  find  their  nidi  in  the 
honey  dew  secreted  by  the  insects.  Their  natural  enemies  are 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  scale  insects,  but  the  very 
minute  Hymenopterous  parasites  of  the  family  Mymaridas  seem  to 
be  their  specific  internal  parasites.  In  fact,  they  are  too  small  to 
harbor  any  other  true  internal  parasites  except  the  members  of 
this  family,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  includes  the  smallest  true 
insects  known. 


Typical  Life  History  of  a  Winite  Fly 

(Aleyrodes  citri,  Riley  &   Howard.^ 

This  species,  which  is  the  only  form  of  any  great  economic 
importance  in  the  group  and  the  one  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred, occurs  abundantly  in  some  of  the  orange  groves  in  Florida 
and  in  northern  greenhouses  and  made  its  appearance  about  1890 
in  the  orange  groves  of  Louisiana.  It  is  not  known  whether  it 
is  an  indigenous  or  imported  species.  It  will  probably  be  found 
247 


The  White  Flies  or  Aleyrodids 


in  any  northern  greenhouse  in  which  orange  or  lemon  trees 
occur.  It  is  found  in  the  south  also  upon  the  china-berry  tree, 
upon  viburnum,  cape  jessamine  and  the  water  oak.  The  follow- 
ing life  history  account  is  drawn  up  from  observations  made  in 
greenhouses  in  the  city  of  Washington.  The  insect  passes  the 
winter  in  the  full-grown  larval  condition.  The  adult  insects  issue 
during  April  and  begin  to  lay  their  eggs  about  or  before  the 
middle  of  the  month.  About  twenty-five  eggs  are  laid  by  each 
female.  The  eggs  are  very  delicate,  pellucid,  and  each  possesses 
a  slender  petiole  or  foot-stalk  about  one-third  the  length  of  the 


Fig.  141. — Aleyrodes  citri.     (From  Insect  Life.) 

egg  proper.  In  two  weeks  the  young  larva  hatches.  It  is  com- 
paratively active  and  crawls  a  short  distance  from  the  egg-shell 
before  beginning  to  feed.  In  from  two  to  four  weeks  it  molts 
and  by  the  middle  of  June  three  skins  have  been  cast.  In  molt- 
ing the  insect  curves  the  abdomen  upwards  at  more  than  right- 
angles,  moving  it  occasionally  up  and  down.  It  shrinks  away 
from  the  side  margin  until  it  occupies  only  about  one-third  of  the 
original  lateral  space.  The  skin  then  splits  at  the  anterior  end  or 
underneath  the  head.  Then  the  head  and  prothorax  are  pushed 
24S 


Plate  XXVll. 
BUGS,    LEAF-HOPPERS   AND   CICADAS 

FIG. 

1.  Nepa  apiculata  (Nepidae)  Atlantic  States 

2.  Ranatra  fusca  (Nepidre)  Atlantic  States 

3.  Emesa  longipes  (Emesidse)  Atlantic  States 

4.  Benacus  griseus  (Belostomatidje)  Atlantic  States 

5.  Galgulus  oculatus  (Galgulidae)  U.  S. 

6.  Gerris  remigis  (Hydrometridae)  Atlantic  States 

7.  Corixa  harrisii  (Corixidie)  Atlantic  States 

8.  Rheumatobates  rileyi  (Hydrometridae)  U.  S. 

9.  Poecilocapsus  lineatus  (Capsidae)  U.  S. 

10.  Resthenia  insitiva  (Capsidae)  U.  S. 

11.  Notonecta  undulata  (NotonectidK)  U.  S. 

12.  Notonecta  irrorata  (Notonectidae)  U.  S. 

13.  Zaitha  fluminea  (Belostomatidae)  Atlantic  States 
u  14.  Tomaspis  bicincta  (Carcopidse)  U.  S. 

t)  1 3.  Tomaspis  bicincta 

O16.  Tibicen  septendecim  (Cicadidae)  U.  S. 

0  17.  Telamona  monticola  (Membracidae)  Northern  States 

0    18.  Ceresa  bubalus  (Membracidae)  U.  S. 

019.  Oncometopia  undata  (Tettigonidae)  U.  S. 

'^20.  Cicada  tibicen  (Cicadidae)  Southern  States 

O21.  Homalodisca  coagulata  (Tettigonidae)  Southern  States 

<0  22.  Oncometopia  undata 

O23.  Dictyophara  microrrhina  (Fulgorida)  Southern  States 

t/^  024.  Ormenis  septentrionis  (Fulgorida)  Southern  States 

0  23.  Cicada  dorsata  (Cicadidae)  Western  States 

0  2b.  Homalodisca  coagulata 

i^^-O  27.  Ormenis  septentrionis 

\/^^2S.  Ormenis  pruinosa  (Fulgoridae)  U.  S. 

029.  Poiocera  fuliginosa  (Fulgoridae)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


Platb  XXVII. 


The  White  Flies  or  Aleyrodids 

out  and  the  skin  is  gradually  worked  backwards.  At  the  end  of 
June  the  adults  begin  to  issue  again  in  numbers,  remaining  alive 
for  about  twenty  days.  There  are  three  generations  annually. 
When  the  perfect  insect  issues  from  what  may  be  termed  the 
pupa  shell,  the  wings  are  rolled  up  and  make  their  appearance 
with  extreme  slowness.  Just  before  the  adult  is  ready  to  issue 
the  pupa  shell  becomes  transparent  so  that  the  contained  insect, 
shrunken  away  from  the  skin,  is  plainly  seen  in  all  of  its  stages. 
The  adult  just  after  issuing  is  at  first  milk-white  except  for  bright 
lemon-yellow  thoracic  lobes.  The  adult  male  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  female  by  the  anal  claspers  and  by  the  waxy 
tufts  issuing  from  the  head  and  from  the  abdomen.  All  stages 
are  well  represented  in  the  accompanying  figures. 


THE  SCALE  INSECTS 

(Family   Coccidir.) 

The  insects  of  this  family,  popularly  known  as  scale  insects 
or  bark-lice,  include  forms  of  great  morphological  interest  as  well 
as  very  many  of  great  economic  importance.  In  the  latter  respect 
they  form  very  injurious  enemies  to  most  fruit  trees  as  well  as  to 


Fig.   142. — Diaspis  pentagona.     (Aitthor's  illustration.) 

many  other  shade  and  ornamental  trees.  They  occur  upon 
bushes  and  vines  as  well  and  are  even  in  some  instances  found 
upon  grasses.  The  group  as  a  whole  is  a  most  abnormal  one  in 
its  life  history.  In  general  terms  it  may  be  stated  that  the  eggs 
are  laid  by  the  adult  female  either  immediately  below  her  own 
body  or  at  its  posterior  extremity.  Certain  species  do  not  lay 
eggs  but  give  birth  to  living  young  as  do  the  plant-lice.  This 
abnormal  habit  is  not  characteristic  of  any  particular  group  of 
forms  but  is  found  with  individual  species  in  one  or  more  genera. 
The  young  on  hatching  from  the  eggs  are  six-legged,  mite-like 
250 


The  Scale  Insects 


143. — Diaspis  pentagona:  adult  male. 
(Author's  illustration.) 


creatures,  which 
crawl  rapidly 
away  from  the 
body  of  the 
mother,  wander 
out  upon  the 
new  and  tender 
growth  of  the 
plant  or  tree, 
and  there  settle, 
pushing  their 
beaks  through 
the  outer  tissue  of  the  leaf  or  twig  and  feeding  upon  the  sap. 
Even  at  this  early  stage  the  male  insect  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  female  by  certain  differences  in  structure.  As  a  general  rule 
the  female  casts  its  skin  from  three  to  five  times  before  reaching 
the  adult  condition 
and  beginning  to 
lay  eggs  or  to  give 
birth  to  young. 
With  each  success- 
ive molt  the  insect 
increases  in  size 
and  becomes  more 
convex  in  form. 
Its  legs  and  an- 
tennae become 
proportionally  re- 
duced, its  eyes  be- 
come smaller  and 
are  finally  lost.  As 
a  general  rule  it  is 
incapable  of  mov- 
ing itself  from  the 
spot  upon  which  it 
has  once  become 
fixed  after  the 
second  molt,  al- 
though certain  spe-  ^j^  ,_,^._Diaspis  pentagona,  adult  female  scale 
cieS  crawl  through-  removed.  (Author's  illustration.) 
251 


The  Scale  Insects 


Fig.  145. — Diaspis  rosae.     (After  Comstock.) 


Fig.  146. — Lecanium  nigrofasciatum.     (Author's  ilbutration.) 
252 


The  Scale  Insects 


Fig.  147. — Common  hot-house 
mealy-bug,     Dactylopius 
citri.     (After  Cotnstock.) 


out  life.  The  adult  female  insect  then 
is  a  wingless,  motionless,  degraded, 
and  for  all  practical  purposes  legless 
and  eyeless  creature.  She  seems 
simply  an  animated  drop  of  proto- 
plasm enclosed  in  a  skin.  In  the 
armored  scales  she  is  absolutely  leg- 
less and  eyeless.  The  mouth-parts 
through  which  she  derives  nourish- 
ment remain  functional  and  become 
enlarged  from  molt  to  molt.  Her 
body  becomes  swollen  with  eggs  or 
young  and  as  soon  as  these  are  laid  or  born  she  dies. 

The  life  of  the  male  differs  radically  from  that  of  the  female. 
Up  to  the  second  molt  the  development  remains  practically 
parallel  in  the  two  sexes,  but  after  this  molt  the  male  larva  trans- 
forms to  a  pupa  in  which  the  organs  of  the  perfectly  developed 
fledged  insect  become  apparent.  This  change  may  be  undergone 
in  a  cocoon  or  under  a  male  scale.  The  adult  male,  which  issues 
at  about  the  time  when  the  female  becomes  full  grown,  is  an 
active  and  rather  highly  organized  creature  with  two  broad  func- 
tional wings  and  long  vibrating  antennae  clothed  with  hairs. 
The  legs  are  also  long  and  stout.  The  hind  wings  are  absent  but 
are  replaced  by  rather  long  tubercles  to  the  end  of  which  is 
articulated  a  strong  bristle  hooked  at 
the  tip  and  fitted  into  a  pocket  on  the 
hind  margin  of  the  wings.  The  eyes 
of  the  adult  male  are  very  large  and 
strongly  facetted.  The  moulh-parts  are 
absent  and  curiously  enough  their  place 
is  taken  by  supplementary  eye  spots  or 
simple  eyes  (ocelli).  The  function  of 
the  male  seems  simply  to  find  the 
female,  to  fertilize  her  and  then  die. 

The  number  of  generations  in  scale 
insects  varies  greatly  and  no  general 
statement  can  be  made. 

The    scale   insects    found    in    the 
F.g  i48.-Long-tailed   mealy-  y^j^gj    gtates   belong   to   three    large 

bug,  Dactylopius  longinlis.  "  " 

(After  Comstock.)  groups,  the  most    important   and  the 

253 


The  Scale  Insects 


Fig.  149. — Cottony  Maple  Scale,  Pulvinaria 
innumerabilis.     ( Aiithor^s  illustration.) 


most  abundant  in 
species  of  whicii  is 
the  group  known  as 
the  armored  scales 
(subfamily  Dinspina;), 
so  termed  because  the 
insect  soon  after  set- 
tling begins  the  secre- 
tion of  a  scale  by 
means  of  threads  of 
wax  exuding  from 
pores  in  the  body 
which  eventually 
blend  together  and 
form  an  impervious 
covering  separated 
from  the  insect's 
body.  The  shape  and 
character  of  this  scale  is  of  importance  in  the  classification  of 
the  group  but  the  most  important  characters  are  found  in  the  anal 
plate  of  the  body  of  the  female  insect.  A  second  large  group 
well  represented  in  the  United  States  is  the  group  of  naked  bark- 
lice,  known  as  the  subfamily  Lecaniinae.  In  this  group  no  true 
scale  is  formed  and  the  body  is  usually  well  arched  so  as  to 
become  almost  hemispherical.  The  third  group  (subfamily 
Coccinae)  comprises  those  forms  known  as  mealy-bugs  and  re- 
lated forms.  These  insects  have  no  differentiated  scale  but  are 
all  covered  with  a  white  waxy  secretion,  some  of  them  having 
conspicuous  waxy  egg  sacs  at  the  end  of  the  body  of  the  female. 
The  majority  of  species  of  scale  insects  at  present  found  in 
the  United  States  are  not  indigenous  to  this  country,  but  have 
been  introduced  from  abroad,  most  of  them  from  European 
regions,  on  plants  and  young  trees  and  on  fruit  carried  to  this 
country  in  the  course  of  commercial  interchange. 


The  Scale  Insects 


Life   History  of  the  Oyster-Sineii    Bark-Louse 
of  the  Apple. 

( ATytilaspis  ponwriini  Bouche.^ 

This  insect  is  probably  tiie  commonest  and  most  widespread, 
and  consequently  the  best-known,  of  any  of  the  orchard  scales. 
It  is  found  all  over  the  world,  it  was  probably  an  European 
insect  originally — at  all  events,  it  was  l<nown  in  Europe  during 
the  last  century — and  was  probably  imported  into  this  country 
on  nursery  stoclc  by  the  early  settlers.  It  is  found  in  the  United 
States  practically  wherever  apples  and  pears  are  grown,  more 
abundantly  at  the  north  than  at  the  south,  and  has  often  received 
treatment  at  the  hands  of  writers  on  injurious  insects.     It  was 


Fig.  150. — Mytilaspis  pomorum.     ( Author's  illustration. ) 

certainly  known  in  this  country  as  early  as  1794,  and  it  unques- 
tionably followed  apple  culture  as  it  progressed  to  the  west.  It 
was  known  in  the  districts  bordering  along  Lake  Michigan  in 
1840,  and  in  1868  it  invaded  Iowa  and  northern  Missouri.  To- 
255 


The  Scale  Insects 


day  it  is  present  even  in  California.  It  is  by  no  means  confined 
to  apple  and  pear,  but  is  also  found  upon  quince,  hawthorn, 
buckthorn,  rarely  upon  raspberry  and  currant,  but  also  upon 
linden,   hop  tree,  horse  chestnut,  maple,  water  locust,  honey- 


Fig.  151. — Mytilaspis  pomorum  :  adult  male  and  female     (Author's  tllustration.) 

suckle,  ash,  elm,  hickory,  cottonwood,  willow,  poplar,  wild 
grape,  rose,  fig.  bitter-sweet,  red  maple,  black  ash,  white  ash, 
white  birch,  red  birch,  and  very  abundantly  upon  the  lilac,  so 
that  it  will  be  an  easy  form  to  collect  and  to  study.  In  the 
winter  time,  if  one  of  the  oyster-shell  shaped  scales  is  lifted 
gently  with  the  point  of  a  needle,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  at 
the  narrow  front  end  the  shriveled  body  of  the  female  with  from 
50  to  100  yellowish  white  eggs  packed  closely  together  behind 
the  body.  Sometimes  the  eggs  will  be  found  to  be  very  few  in 
number,  but  then  the  larva  or  pupa  of  a  little  chalcidid  parasite 
will  be  found  under  the  scale,  which  will  account  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  eggs.  In  most  of  the  northeastern  states  the  young 
hatch  from  these  eggs  during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  early  in 
June  (at  an  earlier  date  farther  south),  and  wander  out  upon  the 
twigs  and  settle  at  once.  The  young  twigs  are  the  only  parts  of 
256 


1/  n.i  n'/;.  -AciA^ 


,20tJ;j2  d: 


Plate   XXVIII. 
CICADAS  AND    LEAF-HOPPERS 

FIG. 

Oi.  Carynota  mera  (Membracidse)  U.  S. 

O    2.  Cixius  stigmatus  (Fulgoridae)  U.  S. 

(O3.  Telamona  monticola  (Membracidc-e)  Northern  States 

04.  Platycentrus  acuticornis  (Membracid^e)  Southern  States 
0  s.  Platycotis  4-vittatus  (Membracidse)  U.  S. 

05.  Orgerius  rhyparus  (Fulgoridze)  Cal. 

O7.  Tibicen  cruentifera  (Cicadidae)  Southern  States 

C  8.  Melampsalta  parvula  (Cicadids)  Southern  States 

«  9.  Tibicen  striatipes  (Cicadidae)  Southern  States 

^10.  Tibicen  rimosa  (Cicadidae)  Western  States 

on.  Tettigia   heiroglyphica  (Cicadids)  Atlantic  States,  Southern 
States 

012.  Cicada  cinctifera  (Cicadidae)  Western  States 

013.  Cicada  vitripennis  (Cicadidae)  Southwestern  States 

014.  Platypedia    putnami   (Cicadidae)  Southern   States,    Western 

States 

015.  Cicada  sordidata  (Cicadidae)  Southern  States 
^16.  Janthe  expansa  (Membracidae)  Southern  States 

07.  Janthe  expansa  (side)  (Membracidae)  Southern  States 

018.  Otiocerus  antonii  (Fulgoridae)  Southern  States 

0  19.  Cicada  marginata  (Cicadidae)  U.  S. 

^  Q20.  Amphiscepa  bivittata  (Fulgoridae)  U.  S. 


The  iNSEcr  Book, 


Plate  XXVIIl. 


The  Scale  Insects 

the  tree  which  seem  to  be  seriously  affected.  Older  twigs,  how- 
ever are  also  attacked,  and  many  specimens  of  the  insect  may  be 
found  upon  the  trunk.  As  soon  as  the  young  insect  finds  a 
suitable  position  it  gradually  inserts  its  beak  and  commences  to 
grow  through  the  influence  of  the  healthy  food  sap  which  it  pumps 
up.  Almost  immediately,  also,  the  secretion  of  scale  begins. 
This  is  first  noticed  in  the  form  of  a  white,  waxy  powder  which 
first  is  seen  in  the  form  of  threads,  but  which  soon  becomes  homo- 
geneous. In  a  few  days  the  first  molt  takes  place,  not  as  in  the 
ordinary  manner  with  insects  by  a  series  of  contractions  and  exten- 
sions which  work  the  old  skin  to  the  end  of  the  body,  from  which 
it  is  finally  freed,  but  by  a  sort  of  loosening  and  shrinking  of  the 
body  underneath,  all  the  parts  except  the  proboscis  being  shed 
and  abandoned  with  the  skin.  Strengthened  by  the  secretions 
from  the  body,  this  skin  forms  the  first  scale.  Presently  the  skin 
is  shed  a  second  time  and  mingles  with  the  second  secretion, 
which  forms  the  second  scale,  which  may  be  noticed  at  the 
anterior  end  of  the  completed  scale  of  the  old  individual.  As 
growth  continues  this  second  scale  becomes  too  small  and  is 


Fig.  152. — The  scurfy  bark-louse  of  the 

apple,  Chimaspis  furfurus. 

(Author's  illustration. J 

lifted  up  into  the  third  portion,  while  the  shield  proper  is  secreted 
by  a  series  of  increments,  more  being  constantly  added  on  behind 
as  the  insect  beneath  grows.  When  full  grown  the  female  is 
ready  for  reproduction.     The  male  scale  is  a  perfectly  distinct 

257 


The  Scale  Insects 

object,  as  indicated  in  tiie  accompanying  figure,  and  the  adult 
male,  which  makes  its  appearance  at  the  time  when  the  females 
are  almost  ready  for  oviposition,  is  shown  at  Figure  151.  There 
is  but  one  annual  generation  in  the  northern  states,  and,  owing  to 
this  fact,  the  leaves  are  not  attacked,  for  if  the  insect  were  to  go 
on  the  leaves  it  would  be  lost  when  they  fall  in  the  autumn. 
Upon  the  fruit  it  is  almost  equally  rare,  although  occasionally  a 
specimen  is  found  in  such  a  location.  In  the  south,  however, 
the  insect  is  two-brooded,  and  the  adults  of  the  first  generation 
are  found  upon  the  fruit  and  leaves  without  danger  to  the 
perpetuation  of  the  species,  since  their  offspring  crawl  back  to 
the  permanent  portions  of  the  plant  before  autumn.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  however,  even  in  the  south  the  insect  is  very  seldom  seen 
upon  either  the  leaves  or  the  fruit. 

The  insect  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  many  natural  enemies 
in  the  course  of  its  growth.  The  little  ladybirds,  as  the  beetles  of 
the  family  Coccinellidse  are  termed,  both  as  larvse  and  adults 
feed  upon  these  and  other  scales.  There  are  five  distinct  species 
of  chalcidid  parasites  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  maturing  bark- 
lice,  and  while  the  lice  are  young  and  before  they  have  formed  a 
protective  scale  they  are  avidly  destroyed  by  the  larvae  of 
the  syrphus  flies,  of  the  lace-winged  flies,  and  by  certain 
small  predatory  bugs.  The  most  efficient  of  their  natural 
enemies,  however,  are  probably  the  ladybirds,  since  the  writer 
has  determined  that  the  internal  chalcidid  parasites  rarely  destroy 
all  of  the  eggs  in  the  over-wintering  scales.  A  large  number  of 
scales  were  examined  in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  of  1894, 
with  the  result  that  when  parasites  were  found  from  two  to 
eighteen  eggs  were  found  to  have  escaped  destruction,  the 
average  number  of  eggs  in  uninfested  scales  being  from  sixty-five 
to  seventy-five.  In  two  cases,  where  a  parasite  had  issued  late  in 
the  fiiU  (and  the  small  round  hole  of  issuing  is  readily  perceived 
in  the  scale),  eleven  and  five  eggs,  respectively,  were  found.  The 
ladybird,  however,  eats  everything. 


258 


THE  JUMPING    PLANT-LICE   OR    FLEA-LICE 

(Family    PsyllidcB.) 

These  insects  have  two-jointed  tarsi,  antennae  eight-or-nine- 
jointed,  and  the  hind  legs  with  somewhat  swollen  thighs.     Their 


Fig.   153.— Galls  of  Pachypsylla  venusta  O.  S.     (A tier  Riley ) 

jumping  habit  distinguishes  them  from  the  plant-lice  as  indicated 
in  the  popular  name.  Certain  species  exude  quantities  of  the 
sweet  liquid  known  as  honey-dew,  which  is  also  abundantly 
secreted  by  the  plant-lice  and  by  some  of  the  tree-hoppers  and 
leaf-hoppers.  Many  forms  live  in  galls  and  there  are  several 
species  which  produce  galls  of  different  Itinds  upon  the  trees  of 
the  genus  Celtis,  commonly  known  as  "  hackberry  trees." 
259 


The  Jumping  Plant-Lice  or  Flea-Lice 

Life  History  of  the  Pear-Tree  Psylla 

(Psylla  fyricola.) 

This  insect  is  tiie  commonest  and  the  most  destructive  flea 
louse  in  the  United  States.     It  is  common  throughout  the  north- 


Fig.  154. — Pear-tree  Psylla:  adult  female — natural  size  indicated 
by  side  line.     (After  Marlatt.) 


eastern  United  States  and  from  Maryland  on  the  south  to 
Michigan  on  the  west.  It  was  originally  a  European  species 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  imported  into  this  country  about 
1832,  maiiing  its  first  appearance  in  Connecticut.  The  egg  is 
orange  yellow  in  color  and  very  minute.  It  is  attached  to 
the  leaf  by  a  short  arm  and  has  a  long  hair-like  stalk  pro- 
jecting from  its  end.  The  newly  hatched  larva  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  egg  and  yellow  in  color  with  crimson  eyes, 
it  passes  through  several  molts  and  when  nearing  the  nymphal 
condition,  which  corresponds  to  the  pupa  stage  in  insects  which 
have  complete  metamorphoses,  it  is  readily  distinguished  by 
260 


The  Jumping  Plant-Lice  or  Flea-Lice 


the   large   wing   pads.      Its 


Fig.  155. — Pear-tree  Psylla:  a,  eg 

b,  larva — both  greatly  enlarged. 

(After  Marlatt.) 

adult  stage  in  crevices  in  th 
with  the  first  warm  spring 
days,  beginning  with  the 
laying  of  the  eggs  on  the 
leaves  before  they  have 
fully  expanded  or  even 
placing  them  in  cracks 
in  the  bark  on  the  twigs. 
The  larvae  hatch  in  ten  to 
seventeen  days  and  station 
themselves  on  the  surface 
of  the  leaves  or  on  the 
leaf  petioles.  There  are 
four  or  five  generations 
each  summer  in  Mary- 
land but  fewer  farther 
north. 


color  is  then  dark  reddish  brown. 
In  all  the  early  stages  the  in- 
sect is  broad-oval  and  very 
much  flattened,  resembling 
more  nearly  some  scale  in- 
sect rather  than  a  perfect 
flea-louse.  It  is  also  slug- 
gish in  these  early  stages. 
When  the  nymph  casts  its 
last  skin  the  adult  insect 
emerges.  It  resembles  much 
more  closely  a  minute 
cicada  or  harvest-fly  than 
any  other  homopterous  in- 
sect.     It    hibernates    in    the 

e  bark  of  pear-trees   and  emerges 


Fig.  1 56. — Pear-tree  Psylla  :  pupa. 
(After  Marlatt.) 


Zfil 


PLANT-LICE 

(Family  ApJiididce.) 

The  plant-lice  are  very  numerous  not  only  in  point  of  num- 
bers of  individuals  but  also  of  numbers  of  species.  In  many 
respects  these  insects  are  abnormal,  especially  in  their  method  of 
development,  and  they  have  attracted  great  attention  from 
naturalists  since  Bonnet  discovered,  150  years  ago,  the  peculiar 


Fig.  157. — Nectarophora  pisum  :    the  green-pea  plant-louse.     (After  Ckittetiiien.J 


phenomenon  known  as  parthenogenesis,  which  is  almost  invari- 
ably the  rule  amongst  these  creatures.  Their  life  history  is  very 
surprising  and  their  relations  with  other  insects,  especially  with 
ants,  are  most  interesting.  They  are  very  destructive  insects, 
preying  upon  practically  all  cultivated  plants,  and  their  rate  of 
increase  is  so  enormous  that  if  it  were  not  for  their  innumerable 
262 


natural  enemies  they  would  probably  annihilate  the  greater  part 
of  plant  life.     The  classic  computation  of  Huxley  that  the  unin- 
terrupted breeding  of  ten  generations  of  plant-lice  from  a  single 
ancestor  would  produce  a  mass  of  organic  matter  equivalent  to 
the  bulk  of  five  hundred  millions  of  human  beings  (about  the 
_______  __  population  of  the 

yX^^SSESJI^  Chinese  Empire) 

^  ■'*'  is  by  no  means 

an  over-estimate, 
but  if  anything 
an  under-esti- 
mate.  This  ra- 
pidity in  breed- 
ing is  not  due 
to  extreme  pro- 
lificacy since  the 
number  of  off- 
spring of  a  single 
female  is  rather 
small,  but  rather 
to  the  early  age 
at  which  the  offspring  begin  themselves  to  reproduce.  Partheno- 
genesis, which  means  the  virgin  birth,  i.  e.,  the  birth  of  individ- 
uals from  a  virgin  female,  and  the  fact  that  with  most  species 
and  during  a  large  part  of  the  year  the  young  are  born  alive, 
account  for  this  rapidity.  Gen- 
eration after  generation  is  pro- 
duced in  this  way  but  in  all  cases 
sooner  or  later  there  comes  a  true 
sexual  generation  composed  of 
both  males  and  females  which 
pair  and  these  females  as  a  rule 
lay  eggs  instead  of  giving  birth 
to  living  young.  In  many  cases 
it  is  in  this  egg  stage  that  plant- 
lice  pass  the  winter.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  true  males  make 
their  appearance  only  a  single  time  in  a  number  of  genera- 
tions. Another  curious  feature  in  the  life  of  plant-lice  is  the  fact 
that  while  the  majority  of  the  generations  in  the  course  of  a  sum- 
mer are  composed  of  wingless  females  there  comes  once  or  twice 
263 


Fig.  15S.— Phylloxera  vastatrix.    ( After  Marlatt.) 


Fig.    159. — Phylloxera    vastatrix:    egg 
and  young.     ( After  Marlatt.) 


during  each  season  a  generation  of  winged  females,  thus  provid- 
ing for  the  dispersal  of  the  species  and  not  only  for  the  dispersal 
of  the  species  but  for  the   return    to   a    perennial  plant  in  the 

autumn  from  the  weeds, 
grasses  and  other  annual 
plants  upon  which  the 
summer  generations  may 
have  fed. 

Plant-lice  are  attacked 
by  a  host  of  natural  ene- 
mies. The  little  Braconid 
parasites  of  the  subfamily 
Aphidiinae  are  practically 
exclusively  parasites  of 
the  plant-lice.  Their  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  body  of  the 
louse,  the  young  live 
within  the  body  until  they  reach  full  growth,  and  the  little  four- 
winged   parasite   eventually   emerges  as   an    adult.      Plant-lice 


Fig.  i6o.- 


-Phylloxera  vastatiix :  root  form. 
(After  Marlatt.) 


-^^^    ^^22XX: 


Fig.  1 6 


c  =F 

-Phylloxera  vastatrix :  leaf-gall  form.     (After  Marlatt.) 


parasitized  in  this  way  become  swollen  and  dark  in  color  and 
can  readily  be  distinguished.  These  parasites  themselves  breed 
with  extraordinary  rapidity  and  are  frequently  responsible  for  the 

26, 


practical  extermination  of  the  hosts  of  lice  which  are  frequently 
found  in  the  wheat  fields  in  the  spring.  The  lady-birds  and  the 
larvae  of  the  syrphus  flies  and  the  golden-eyed  lace-wing  tlies  as 
well  as  the  maggots  of  certain  midges  of  the  genus  Diplosis  and 
others  breed  upon  plant-lice  and  in  fact  derive  the  greater  part  of 
their  food  from  these  creatures.  Extreme  prolificacy  is  the  means 
which  nature  adopts  to  continue  the  existence  of  many  other- 
wise unprotected  and  much  harassed  species.  In  this  instance, 
however,  it  has  taken  the  form  of  extreme  rapidity  of  develop- 
ment instead  of  great  prolificacy. 

The  relationship  between  plant-lice  and  ants  has  been  often 
described  and  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  topics  in  the  whole 
field  of  nature  study.  The  honey  dew  which  is  secreted  by 
plant-lice  both  from  the  anus  and  from  two  tubes  upon  the  back 
of  the  abdomen  is  greatly  enjoyed  by  ants  which  in  a  surprisingly 
intelligent  way  care  for  the  plant-lice,  drive  away  their  natural 
enemies,  carry  them  bodily  to  better  feeding  grounds,  recognize 
the  necessity  for  migrations  at  times  and  assist  in  these  migra- 
tions and  actually  prepare  locations  in  advance  of  transportation. 
The  term  which  is  frequently  applied  to  Aphids,  viz,  "the  milch 
cows  of  the  ants,"  is  a  very  appropriate  one. 

Probably  the  most  famous  of  the  plant-lice  in  the  economic 
sense  are  the  grape-vine  Phylloxera  (Phylloxera  vastatrix),  a 
species  which  is  said  to  have  cost  the  French  nation  more  than 
the  indemnity  paid  to  the  Germans  after  the  Franco-Prussian 
war,  the  woolly  root-louse  of  the  apple  CSht'ionettra  lanigera) 
erroneously  known  in  most  parts  of  the  world  as  the  American 
blight,  and  the  hop-plant  louse  (Phorodon  linmiili  Schrank^,  a 
species  which  is  fast  becoming  cosmopolitan  and  which  for  years 
has  been  the  greatest  enemy  to  the  hop-growing  industry  in 
England  and  parts  of  this  country. 

Life  History  of  the  Hop-Plant  Louse 

(Plioivdon  hitmuli  Schrank.) 

This  insect  which  we  have  just  mentioned  as  an  extremely 
injurious  species  is  commonly  known  as  the  hop-plant  louse  and 
sometimes  as  the  hop  blight  insect.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  is  a 
great  drawback  to  the  success  of  hop-growing  in  England,  was 

265 


for  many  years  known  in  the  hop  plantations  in  centra!  New 
YorI<  and  in  southern  Wisconsin  and  has  within  the  last  ten 
years  made  its  appearance  in  the  extensive  hop-growing  regions 
in  Washington,  Oregon  and  northern  CaHfornia.  All  through 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States  occasionally  hop  plants  are  grown 
in  door-yards  and  this  plant-louse  is 
found  practically  every  season  upon  these 
plants.  The  hop  is  an  annual  plant,  dy- 
ing down  to  the  ground  with  the  first 
frost  in  the  autumn.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  the  plant-louse  is  to  be 
found  upon  some  other  plant  during  the 
late  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring.  This 
alternate  food  plant  as  it  is  called  is 
the  plum.  Just  why  plum  trees  are  nearly 
always  found  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  hop  yards  is  a  mystery.  The  winter 
egg  of  the  louse  is  found  upon  the  plum 
tree  usually  at  the  base  of  the  buds  and 
sometimes  under  the  scales  of  a  bud. 
From  these  eggs  in  the  spring  hatches 
the  first  generation  which  is  composed  entirely  of  virgin  females 
and  the  individuals  of  this  generation  are  known  as  the  stem- 
mothers.  In  two  or  three  days  after  hatching,  having  migrated 
to  the  minute  leaves  bursting  from  the 
buds,  they  begin  to  give  birth  to  living 
young,  these  also  all  being  females. 
Every  day  of  her  existence  the  stem- 
mother  gives  birth  to  several  young 
varying  in  number  from  two  to  seven  or 
eight.  Each  of  these  after  reaching  the 
age  of  about  eight  days  begins  in  its 
turn  to  give  birth  to  living  young,  so 
that  the  stem-mother  may  live  to  see 
her  grandchildren  of  the  fourth  or  fifth 
generation.  The  third  generation  ac- 
quires wings,  although  all  are  still 
females.  By  the  time  the  winged 
generation  makes  its  appearance  the 
hops  will  have   begun   to   come  up  in  the  fields  and  the  lice 


Fig.  163.  —  Phorodon  humuli: 
stem-mother.  ( Froin  Insect 
Life.) 


Plate  XXIX 
TRUE    BUGS 

FIG. 

1.  Narnia  Pallidicornis  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

2.  Largus  cinctus  (Pyrrhocoridae)  Western  States 
}.  Spartocera  diffusa  (Coreidas)  Southern  States 

4.  Chelinidea  vittigera  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

5.  Narnia  femorata  (Coreidas)  Soutliern  States 

6.  Arhaphe  Carolina  (Pyrrhocorida;)  Southern  States 

7.  Leptopterna  dolabrata  (Capsidae)  Eastern  States 

8.  Anasa  obliqua  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

9.  Jadera  haematohna  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

10.  Serphus  dilatatus  (Belostomatidae)  Western  States 

11.  Alydus  pilosulus  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

12.  Toliius  curtulus  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

13.  Corynocoris  typhaeus  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

14.  Harmostes  retlexulus  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

15.  Galgulus  variegatus  (Galgulidae)  Southern  States 

16.  Nerthra  stygica  (Galgulida)  Southern  States 

17.  Catorhintha  mendica  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

18.  Mecidea  longa  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

19.  Zelus  bilobus  (Reduviidae)  Southern  States 

20.  Apiomerus  crassipes  (Reduviidae)  U.  S. 

21.  Ectrichodia  cinctiventris  (Reduviidfe)  Western  States 

22.  Diplodus  luridus  (Reduviidae)  U.  S. 

23.  Myodocha  serripes  (Lygaeidae)  U.  S. 

24.  Narvesus  caralinianus  (Reduviidae)  Southern  States 

25.  Belostoma  uhleri  (Belostomatidae) 

26.  Eitchia  nigrovittata  (Reduviidae)  Southern  States 

27.  Pygolampis  pectoraiis  (Reduvidae)  Southern  States 

28.  Prionidus  cristatus  (side)  (Reduviidae)  Southern  States 

29.  Nabis  ferus  (Reduviidae)  U.  S. 

30.  Coriscus  subcoleoptratus  (Reduviidae)  Northern  States 

31.  Anisops  platycnemis  (Notonectidae)  Atlantic  States 
}2.  Metrobates  hesperius  (Hydrometridae)  Atlantic  States 
}}.  Trepobates  picta  (Hydrometridae)  U.  S. 

34.  Conorhinus  variegatus  (Reduviidae)  Southern  States 

35.  Zaitha  anura  (with  eggs),  (Belostomatidae)  Southern  States 

36.  Benacus  griseus,    with   eggs  of  water  mite    (Hydrachnid), 

Atlantic  States 

37.  Zaitha  anura  (Belostomatidae)  Southern  States 

38.  Limnotrechus  marginatus  (Hydrometridae)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


fly  to  the  hops,  settle  upon  the  leaves,  and  begin  to  give  birth 

to  the   fourth   generation    which  is  composed  like  the  second 

of    wingless     parthenogenetic    females 

and  the  same  process  is  repeated  until 

possibly   eleven   or  twelve  generations 

in   all   have    been    produced.      By    the 

time  the  twelfth   generation  makes  its 

appearance    the    month   of    September 

has  come  and  hop-picking  is  well  along. 

All  of  the  lice  at  this  time  acquire  wings. 

Some  of  them    may   be  of  the  twelfth 

generation,  others  through  the  fact  that 

their    ancestors    have    been    late   born 

through  a  senes  of  generations  may  be 

only  of  the  fifth  generation.     The  first 

to   acquire   wings    in    the  autumn   are 

always  females  and  these  fly  back  to  the 

neighboring   plum   trees.     Later  individuals  of  this  generation 

and  frequently  all  of  the  individuals  of  an  additional  generation 


Fig.  164.  —  Phorodon  hu- 
muli:  egg-laying  female. 
(From  Insect  Life.) 


Fig.  165. — Phorodon  humuli:  migrant.     (Fri 


'.  Insect  Life.  J 


on  the  hop  are  true  males,  the  male  thus  making  its  appearance 
for  the  first  and  only  time  in  the  life  round  of  the  species.     By 

267 


the  time  they  have  developed  the  first  issuing  females  will  have 
settled  upon  the  plum  trees  and  will  have  given  birth  partheno- 
genetically  as  before  to  a  generation  of  wingless  individuals 
which   comprise   the  true   females— not   the   virgin  females   as 


Fig.  t66. — Phorodon  humuli:  return  migrant.     (From  Insect  Life.) 

before — but  the  true  females  which  must  be  fertilized  by  the 
males.  So  that,  by  the  time  the  winged  males  have  developed 
from  the  hop  and  fly  back  to  the  plum  we  have  this  generation 
of  wingless  sexual  or  true  females  awaiting  them.  Impregnation 
then  takes  place,  the  males  die,  and  these  wingless  sexual  females 
give  birth  to  the  winter  eggs. 


268 


THE  TRUE  BUGS 

(Suborder  Hctcroptcra.) 

The  true  bugs  belong  to  this  group  and  the  common  squash- 
bug  may  be  taken  as  a  typical  example.  In  all,  the  metamorphoses 
are'jncomplete  and  the  mouth-parts  are  formed  into  a  beak  fitted 
for  sucking  either  the  juices  of  plants  or  of  insects  or  the  blood  of 
fishes,  birds  or  mammals.  The  wings,  when  present,  differ 
radically  from  those  of  the  preceding  order  in  that  the  front 
wings  or  wing  covers,  or  elytra,  or  hemielytra,  as  they  are 
variously  termed  are  horny  at  the  basal  half  and  membranous  for 
the  end  portion.  When  they  are  folded  the  membranous  por- 
tions overlap,  that  of  the  right  wing  covering  that  of  the  left,  but 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  even  in  the  same 
species,  while  most  specimens  will  be  found  with  the  right  wing 
uppermost,  there  will  be  some  in  which  the  membrane  of  the  left 
wing  is  on  top. 

The  order  is  a  very  large  one,  but  has  not  been  studied  with 
the  same  assiduity  which  has  characterized  the  study  of  other 
groups.  There  are  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  entomologists  or 
collectors  in  the  United  States  who  specialize  in  the  true  bugs. 
Yet  these  insects  are  easily  captured  and  are  as  readily  preserved 
as  beetles  and  the  studying  of  their  varying  habits  offers  a  most 
attractive  field.  Probably  twelve  thousand  species  have  been 
described  in  the  whole  world  of  which  only  about  one  thousand  six 
hundred  inhabit  the  United  States.  This  number  could  be  more 
than  quadrupled  by  careful  collecting  and,  indeed,  our  most 
learned  authority  on  the  group.  Professor  P.  R.  Uhler,  of  Balti- 
more, informs  me  that  he  infers  that  we  have  five  thousand  species 
in  the  United  States,  of  which  not  more  than  three  thousand 
species  have  been  brought  together  in  collections,  but  the  number 
is  being  added  to  every  month.  He  thinks  that  fifty  thousand, 
as  an  estimate  of  the  existing  species  in  the  whole  world,  would 
be  a  very  insufficient  supposition. 
269 


The  True  Bugs 

In  food  habits  the  Heteroptera  vary  greatly.  Some  of  them 
live  strictly  on  the  sap  of  plants,  while  others  are  carnivorous, 
sucking  the  blood  of  other  insects,  and  even  the  blood  of  vertebrate 
animals,  while  still  others  seem  to  feed  indifferently  upon  plants 
and  animals.  Still  others  seem  to  require  no  other  nourishment 
than  the  moisture  of  decaying  wood  and  fungi.  Many  forms  are 
truly  aquatic,  others  travel  about  with  ease  upon  the  surface, 
while  others  seem  confined  to  the  shores  of  streams  and  ponds 
and  to  the  sea  beach.  The  majority,  however,  live  inland  under 
the  most  diverse  conditions  on  trees,  plants  and  shrubs. 

The  peculiar  odor  possessed  by  many  of  the  true  bugs  is  by 
no  means  characteristic  of  all.  The  disagreeable  and  character- 
istic odor  of  the  bed-bug  is  approximated  by  that  of  the  chinch- 
bug  of  western  wheatfields  and  by  certain  Pentatomids.  Others 
smell  like  very  ripe  or  over-ripe  fruit,  especially  pears,  while  in 
some  Coreidae  the  odor  is  aromatic  and  in  others  it  is  spicy  like 
cinnamon.  This  odor  is  that  of  a  very  volatile  oil  which  is 
secreted,  as  a  method  of  defense, from  certain  specialized  glands 
situated  in  different  parts  of  the  body. 

It  will  especially  be  noticed  that  there  is  very  much  yet  to 
be  learned  about  the  individual  life  histories 'of  the  true  bugs. 
In  very  few  of  the  families  has  a  single  species  been  studied  with 
sufficient  care  to  enable  the  writer  to  give  a  good  typical  life 
history.  There  is  probably  no  one  of  the  great  groups  of  insects 
which  offers  so  good  an  opportunity  for  the  collector,  the  system- 
atic worker,  or  the  true  student  of  nature  who  wishes  to  learn 
how  insects  live,  to  learn  so  many  original  and  absolutely  novel 
facts  as  in  collecting  and  studying  the  Heteroptera.  For  many 
years  Professor  P.  R.  Uhler  has  worked  practically  alone  in  this 
country  on  this  easily  collected,  easily  preserved  and  easily 
studied  group,  and  although  Professor  H.  E.  Summers,  and  Mr. 
O.  Heidemann  have  recently  taken  up  this  interesting  study,  an 
enormous  field  is  open  for  scores  of  workers. 


TABLE  OF   FAMILIES* 

Antennae  shorter  than  the  head  and  nearly  or  quite  concealed 
in  a  cavity  beneath  the  eyes i 

*  For  the  greater  part  of  this  table,  which,  however,  has  been  rearranged,  the 
writer  is  indebted  to  H.  E.  Summers'  Bull.  3,  Vol.  iv,  Agric.  Expt.  Station  of  the 
Univ.  Tenn.,  1S91. 

270 


The  True  Bugs 

Antennae  at  least  as  long  as  the  head,  usually  free,  rarely  (in 
Phymatidje)  lying  in  a  groove  along  the  side  of  the  pro- 
notum ^ 

I — Hind  tarsi  without  claws 2 

Hind  tarsi  with  two  claws 3 

2 — Fore  tarsi  flattened,  ciliated  on  edge,  without  claws;  head 

overlapping  prothorax Corixida- 

Fore  tarsi  not  flattened,  with  two  claws;  head  inserted  into 
prothorax Notonectidcv 

3 — Abdomen  with  two  grooved  filaments  at  tip,  forming  to- 
gether a  respiratory  tube  which  is  not  retractile,  Nepidce 
Abdomen  without  respiratory  tube. 

Legs  formed  for  swimming;  tip  of  abdomen  with  two 

retractile  strap-like  appendages Belostomatidce 

Legs  formed  for  walking;  abdomen  with  no  such  ap- 
pendages. 

Ocelli  absent Naucoridcc 

Ocelli  present Galgulidce 

4 — Antennae  with  their  bases  visible  from  above,  usually  four- 
jointed;  rarely  five-jointed,  (not  counting  the  minute  in- 
termediate segments  sometimes  present.) 

Scutellum  less  than  half  as  long  as  abdomen 5 

Antennae  with  their  bases  not  visible  from  above,  five-jointed. 
Scutellum  more  than  half  as  long  as  abdomen 14 

5 — Beak  three-jointed,  sometimes  four-jointed,  with  basal  seg- 
ment very  short  and  inconspicuous 6 

Beak  four-jointed,  with  plain  basal  segment lo 

6 — Body  very  slender;  head  as  long  as  thorax  . .  Hydrometridce 
Body  of  various  shapes,  but  when  slender,  head  shorter  than 

thorax. 
Last  segment  of  tarsi  more  or  less  bifid,  with  the  claws  in- 
serted before  the  tip Hydrobatidce 

Last  segment  of  tarsi  entire,  claws  at  tip. 

Hemelytra  usually  well  developed  and  without  cuneus. 

When  Hemelytra  is  absent  ocelli  are  present 7 

Hemelytra  with  cuneus Anthocorida; 

Hemelytra  rudimentary,  ocelli  absent Cimicidce 

7 — Hind  tarsi  with  three  segments 8 

Hind  tarsi  with  two  segments 9 

271 


The  True  Bugs 

8 — Beak  long  and  slender Saldidce 

Beak  short  and  stout. 

Head  globulous  behind  the  eyes Henicocephaliclce 

Head  not  so  formed Reditviidiv 

9 — Ocelli  present.     Fore-thighs  greatly  widened PhymatidiV 

Ocelli  absent.     Fore-thighs  not  greatly  widened. 

Hemelytra  shorter  than  abdomen Aradidce 

Hemelytra  longer  than  abdomen Tingitidir 

10 — Hemelytra  without  cuneus.      Membrane  with  longitudinal 

veins  which  are  sometimes  indistinct 1 1 

Hemelytra  with  cuneus.     Membrane  with  one  or  two  cells 
at  base,  but  otherwise  veinless Capsidce 

1 1 — Membrane  either  with  four  or  five  simple  longitudinal  veins, 

in  which  case  ocelli  are  usually  present,  or  with  about 

eight  forked  veins,  in  which  case  ocelli  are  absent. ...  12 

Membrane   with   many,   usually  forked,   longitudinal  veins 

which  are  sometimes  difficult  to  see Coreidce 

12 — Membrane  with  four  or  five  simple  longitudinal  veins. ...  13 

Membrane  with  about  eight  forked  longitudinal  veins.  Ocelli 

lacking Tyrrhocoridce 

13 — Head  with  transverse  incision  in  front  of  ocelli  which  are 

always  present Beryiida; 

Head  without  transverse  incision.      Ocelli  usually  present, 
rarely  lacking Lygaidx 

14 — Five-jointed  antennas  with  hidden  bases.  Scutellum 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  abdomen,  sometimes 
flat,  sometimes  very  convex  and  covering  nearly  the 
whole  abdomen Pentatomidce 


THE  IVATER  BOATMEN 

(Family  Corixidce.*) 

The  little  bugs  of  this  family  and  of  the  five  families  which 
immediately  follow  are  all  aquatic  in  their  habits  and  form  the 
series  known  to  most  writers  as  the  Cryptocerata  from  the  fact 
that  they  appear  to  have  no  antennae,  since  these  organs  are 
hidden  below  the  head,  sometimes  in  pockets.  From  their 
aquatic  habits  they  are  called  Hydrocorisa'  or  Hydrocores  in  some 
of  the  older  works,  though  there  are  two  other  families,  the 
Hebridce  and  Hydrobatidce  which  have  obvious  antennae  and 
yet  live  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and  in  damp  places. 

The  Corixidae  are  known  as  "water  boatmen."  They  are 
mottled  bugs  of  oval  shape  which  are  found 
commonly  swimming  on  the  surface  of  ponds 
and  streams  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
They  are  flattened  below  and  swim  with  the 
back  upwards.  They  can  descend  below  the 
surface  and  remain  there  for  a  long  time  since  they 
carry  down  with  them  a  film  of  air  held  by  the    „      ,      „   . 

■'  •'  Pig.  167. — Conxa 

fine  hairs  which  cover  the  body.  They  are  true  intemipta  Say. 
air  breathers.  When  cold  weather  comes  on,  C^/'<"-  UhUr.) 
the  water  boatman,  as  do  other  aquatic  bugs  as  well,  swims 
down  to  the  bottom  and  buries  itself  in  the  mud  where  it  remains 
during  the  winter  and  specimens  captured  in  spring  are  frequently 
coated  with  mud.  The  eggs  are  laid  under  water  and  are 
attached  in  numbers  to  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants.  The  eggs  of 
two  Mexican  species  (Corixa  mercenaria  and  C.  femorata)  are 
laid  in  enormous  numbers  in  lakes  near  the  city  of  Mexico,  and 
are  made  into  cakes  with  meal  and  are  eaten  by  the  Indians  and 
half-breeds.     They  are  said  to  have  an  agreeable  acid  flavor.     1 

*  Usually  printed  in  the  books  Corisidie,  and  the  type  genus  as  Corisa; 
but  the  change  from  the  older  Corixida  and  Corixa  was  not  justified  by  the 
nomenclature  rules  now  in  force. 


The  Water  Boatmen 

ate  some  once,  but  it  was  a  stale  museum  specimen  and  had 
anytiiing  but  a  pleasant  taste.  These  Mexican  species  are  im- 
ported into  England  by  the  ton  as  food  for  game  and  song  birds, 
poultry  and  fish.  Kirkaldy  has  computed  that  one  ton  contains 
25,000,000  of  these  insects. 

According  to  Miall,  Schmidt-Schwedt  says  that  Corixa  uses 
its  fore  legs  to  play  a  tune  on  its  snout,  the  note  being  tolerably 
loud  and  sustained.  They  swim  rapidly,  their  hind  legs  being 
oar-like,  and  they  are  predatory  in  their  habits,  feeding  upon 
other  aquatic  animals.  The  beak  is  strong  and  sharp  and  they 
can  pierce  the  tough  skin  of  one's  finger. 

Active  as  these  insects  are  in  water  they  are  slow  and 
clumsy  on  land  but  when  their  pools  dry  up  they  fly  inland  in 
search  of  other  water  and  are  sometimes  attracted  to  light  at  night. 
About  forty  species  occur  in  the  United  States,  all  belonging  to 
the  genus  Corixa.  The  full  life  history  of  none  is  known,  and 
an  easily  made  aquarium  study  of  any  one  of  our  common 
species  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

Uhler  says:  "Few  insects  are  more  sprightly  and  the 
aquarium  acquires  a  new  interest  by  the  introduction  of  these 
easily  obtainable  creatures." 


THE  BACK  SIVIMMERS 

(Family  Notoncctidii.) 


These  water  bugs  known  as  the  "  back  swimmers  "  much 
resemble  the  water  boatmen,  but  are  very  convex  on  the 
back  and  always  swim  with  the  belly  upwards.  This,  in  fact, 
distinguishes  them  from  all  other  water  bugs.  In  their  habits  they 
are  much  like  the  water  boatmen.  They  are  predaceous,  and 
feed  upon  other  water  insects  and  even  fish.     They  are  strong 

enough  to  master 
a  good-sized  min- 
now, and  a  prick 
from  their  beak  is 

^^^^^^^  as  painful  as  a  bee 

i  '  'Wtf    '  I  Mi       sting.     They  carry 

wk  ^eS    J^^^^^*^^     BBSB        below  with  them  a 

U  ^^  Mm  ~1U^        greaterair  film  than 

^ft  ^r^  do  the  others,  and 

have  to  hold  fast 
with  their  fore  legs 
to  some  stone  or 
water  plant  to  prevent  themselves  from  popping  up  to  the  surface. 
They  are  most  active  insects,  and  most  interesting  creatures  for 
the  aquarium.  They  hibernate  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of 
streams,  pools  and  ponds.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  stems  of 
water  plants,  which  are  pierced  by  the  sharp  ovipositor  of  the 
female.  About  two-thirds  of  the  egg  are  pushed  into  the 
incision,  and  the  remaining  third  is  left  extruding. 

About  a  dozen  species  are  known  to  inhabit  the  United 
States,  and  these  are  distributed  in  the  genera  Nolonecta,  Anisops 
and  Plea: 

A  good  life  history  of  one  of  our  common  species  such  as 
Notonecta  undiilata,  widely  distributed  in  North  America,  is  still 
to  be  written,  but  could  be  made  out  in  any  school  aquarium. 


Fig.  1 68. — Notonecta  undulata  Say:  upper  and 
lower  side,  beak  and  leg.     (After  Lugger.) 


THE  IVATER  SCORPIONS 

(Family  Ncpidiz.) 


Fig.  1 69. — Nepa  cinerea  Linn  :  a,  adult ;  l>,  front 

leg,  showing  groove  to  receive  rest  of 

limb ;  c,  egg.     (After  Miall.J 

The  Nepids  have  been  called  "water  scorpions"  because 
their  fore  legs  are  swollen  and  fitted  for  grasping,  and  rather 
distantly  resemble  the  cheliceres  of  a  scorpion.  The  anal  end  of 
the  body  bears  two  long  half-tubes  which,  when  united,  form  a 
tube  to  convey  air  to  the  insect  when  the  rest  of  the  body  is 
under  water.  The  water  scorpions  are  either  flat  and  oval  or 
they  are  long  and  thin.  Those  of  the  former  shape  belong  to  the 
genus  "Nepa,  and  of  the  latter  to  the  genus  Ranatra.  As  with 
the  water  boatmen  and  the  back  swimmers,  these  insects  are 
predatory,  and  a  large  share  of  their  food  is  the  eggs  of  fish,  but 
they  also  attack  small  fish  and  other  water  insects. 
276 


The  Water  Scorpions 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  tiie  stems  of  plants  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  are  those  of  the  back  swimmers,  but  the  egg  itself  is 
pushed  entirely  within  the  slit  made  in  the  plant  by  the  insects' 


Fig.  170. — Ranatra  fusca.     ( After  Lugger.) 


ovipositor,  while  there  protrude  several  long  filaments  (seven  in 
hlepa  and  two  in  Ranatra)  which  are  supposed  to  be  pneumatic 
in  function. 

The  eggs  of  no  American  species  have  been  described,  and 
a  full  life  history  of  any  American  species  is  greatly  desired. 


THE  GIANT  IVATER  BUGS 

(Family  Belostomatidce.) 

The  remarkable  insects  of  this  family  have  long  attracted 
attention.  They  include  the  largest  of  living  bugs,  are  strictly 
aquatic  in  their  early  stages  and  are  predatory  in  habits,  living  at 
the  bottom  of  ponds  and  feeding  upon  other  aquatic  animals  in- 
cluding fish.  Their  fore  legs  are  fitted  for  grasping  their  prey 
and  their  hind  legs  for  swimming.  When  full  grown,  however, 
their  wings  are  developed  and  they  fly  strongly  and  for  great  dis- 
tances. They  have  been  found  in  the  midst  of  great  cities  far 
from  ponds  and  are  attracted  to  electric  lights  on  the  tops  of  high 
buildings.  So  attractive  are  electric  lights  to  these  great  bugs 
that  they  congregate  about  them  in  extraordinary  numbers  and 
thousands  of  them  which  have  fallen  to  the  ground  beneath  such 
lights  are  crushed  beneath  the  feet  of  passers  by.  They  have  in 
fact  become  generally  known  as  "electric  light  bugs."  While 
such  hosts  of  them  are  destroyed  in  this  way,  their  numbers  do 
not  seem  to  be  reduced,  but  it  is  bad  policy  to  have  electric 
lights  near  fish  breeding  establishments  or  artificial  fish  ponds. 
The  fish  ponds  in  Washington,  since  the  advent  of  the  electric 
light  have  become  so  greatly  stocked  with  these  bugs  that  they  are 
a  serious  detriment  in  fish  raising.  The  two  most  abundant  and 
the  largest  of  our  native  species  are  Belostovia  americaniim  Leidy 
and  Benacus  griseus  Say.  Both  are  very  large,  flat,  grayish  or 
brownish  bugs  and  were  long  confused.  The  Belostoma  has  a 
double  groove  on  the  underside  of  its  fore  thighs  which  is  lacking 
on  the  thighs  of  the  Benacus.  The  eggs  are  large  and  spherical 
and  are  attached  to  the  stems  of  water  plants  or  to  some  other 
convenient  object.  Of  Benacus  griseus  Uhler  says:  "It  is  the 
facile  master  of  the  ponds  and  estuaries  of  the  tidal  creeks  and 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  States.  Developing  in  the  quiet  pools,  se- 
creting itself  beneath  stones  or  rubbish,  it  watches  the  approach 
of  a  Pomotis,  mud-minnow,  frog  or  other  small-sized  tenant  of 


ijRtnil)  yi 


Plate  XXX. 
TRUE    BUGS 

FIG. 

1.  Orsilochus  guttatus  (Pentatomidas)  Southern  States 

2.  Pang^eus  bilineatus  (PentatomidK)  U.  S. 

3.  Crytomenus  mirahilis  (Pentatomida:)  Southern  States 

4.  Corimelaena  atra  (Pentatomidc-e)  U.  S. 

5.  Tetyra  bipunctata  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

6.  Trichopepla  semivittata  (Pentatomids)  U.  S. 

7.  Eurygaster  alternatus  (Pentatomid;e)  U.  S. 

8.  Homsemus  bijugis  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

9.  Pachycoris  torridus  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

10.  Lioderma  congrua  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

11.  Coenus  delius  (Pentatomids)  U.  S. 

12.  Brochymena  obscura  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

13.  Brochymena  4-pustulata  (Pentatomida)  U.  S. 

14.  Brochymena  arborea  (Pentatomidae)  Atlantic  States 

15.  Lioderma  sayi  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

16.  Prionosoma  pedopioides  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

17.  Thyanta  custator  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

18.  Euschistus  servus  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

19.  Euschistus  tristigmus  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

20.  Podisus  spinosus  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

21.  Acanthosoma  cruciata  (Pentatomidae)  Northern  States 

22.  Euthyrhynchus  tloridanus  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 
2j.  Mutyca  grandis  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

24.  Nezara  marginata  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

25.  Podisus  acutissimus  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

26.  Qibalus  pugnax  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

27.  Hypselonotus  fulvus  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

28.  Mutyca  grandis  $  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

29.  Chondrocera  laticornis  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

30.  Banasa  calva  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

31.  Menecles  insertus  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

32.  Nezara  viridula  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 
'i').  Leptoglossus  corculus  (Coreids)  Southern  States 

34.  Leptoglossus  corculus  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

35.  Metapodius  granulosus  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

36.  Mozena  lineolata  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

37.  Chariesterus  antennator  (nymph),  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


1 


2 


* 


i    f 


22 

f 


3 

i 


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A, 


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24 


ii 


The  Giant  Water  Bugs 

the  water,  when  it  darts  with  sudden  rapidity  upon  its  unpre- 
pared victim,  grasps  the  creature  with  its  strong,  clasping  fore 
legs,  plunges  its  deadly  beak  deep  into  the  flesh,  and  proceeds 
with  the  utmost  coolness  to  leisurely  suck  its  blood.  A  copious 
supply  of  saliva  is  poured  into  the  wound,  and  no  doubt  aids  in 
producing  the  paralysis  which  so  speedily  follows  its  puncture  in 
small  creatures." 

The  genus  Zaitha  contains  similar  water  bugs  of  smaller  size 
which  have  frequently  been  mentioned  and  figured  from  the 
curious  habit  of  carrying  the  eggs  plastered  in  a  group  on  the 
back  of  the  adult  insect.  For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that 
the  female  sticks  her  eggs  to  her  own  back  and  the  case  was  sup- 
posed to  parallel,  in  a  way,  that  of  the  famous  Surinam  toad.  A 
German  observer,  Schmidt,  however,  found  that  many  males  car- 
ried eggs,  but  the  method  and  purpose  of  attachment  remained  a 
mystery  until  it  was  cleared  up  by  aquarium  observations  made 
by  an  American,  Miss  Slater,  who  found  that  the  female,  vis  et 
armis,  customarily  lays  them  on  the  back  of  the  unwilling  male. 
Sometimes  she  has  to  struggle  for  hours  to  accomplish  her  fell 
purpose,  but  she  does  accomplish  it  in  the  end  and  her  spouse  is 
converted  into  an  animated  baby  carriage.  Says  Miss  Slater: 
"  That  the  male  chafes  under  the  burden  is  unmistakable;  in  fact 
my  suspicions  as  to  the  sex  of  the  egg-carrier  were  first  aroused 
by  watching  one  in  an  aquarium  which  was  trying  to  free  itself 
from  its  load  of  eggs,  an  exhibition  of  a  lack  of  maternal  interest 
not  to  be  expected  in  a  female  carrying  her  own  eggs.  Generally 
the  Zaithas  are  very  active,  darting  about  with  great  rapidity;  but 
an  egg  bearer  remains  quietly  clinging  to  a  leaf  with  the  end  of 
the  abdomen  just  out  of  the  water.  If  attacked,  he  meekly  re- 
ceived the  blows,  seemingly  preferring  death,  which  in  several 
cases  was  the  result,  to  the  indignity  of  carrying  and  caring  for 
the  eggs." 

The  full  life  history  of  none  of  these  giant  water  bugs  has 
been  properly  described  in  this  country.  The  young  Belostomas 
are  said  to  have  two  tarsal  claws  instead  of  one  as  when  adult, 
but  their  growth  has  not  been  followed.  About  fifty  species  of 
the  family  are  known,  of  which  about  one-half  inhabit  the 
United  States. 


279 


THE  CREEPING  IV/ITER  BUGS 

(Family  Naucorida.) 

These  insects  are  few  in  number  and  small  in  size.  They 
are  aquatic  and  predaceous,  flat-bodied  and  oval.  About  thirty 
species  are  known,  and  only  seven  are  found  in  the  United 
States.  The  commonest  of  these,  Pelocoris  femorata  Beauv.,  is 
widely  distributed  in  this  country  and  is  found  in  waters  in  which 


Fig.  171. — Ambrysus  signoretti  Stal. 
f  After  UhUr.) 

there  is  abundant  vegetation,  on  which  it  creeps  and  about  which 
it  swims  in  its  search  for  prey.  It  may  be  found  near  the  margin 
of  a  pool  with  a  grassy  bank,  feeding  on  little  land  insects  which 
have  accidentally  fallen  into  the  water.  It's  life  history  should  be 
studied. 


280 


Plate   XXXI. 
TRUE    BUGS 

FIG. 

I.  Euschistus  variolarius  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

2  Podisus  cynicus  (Pentatomidie)  Northern  States 

3.  Mormidea  lugens  (Pentatomida;)  U.  S. 

4.  Eggs  of  Mormidea  lugens 

5.  Perillus  claudus  (Pentatomidae)  Western  States 

6.  Cosmopepla  carnifex  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

7.  Eggs  of  Brochymena  annuiator 

8.  Brochymena  annuiator  (Pentatomidae)  Atlantic  States 

9.  Lioderma  ligata  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

10.  Nezara  hilaris  (Pentatomidae)  U.  S. 

11.  Murgantia  histrionica  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

12.  Stiretrus  anchorage  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

13.  Proxys  punctulatus  (Pentatomidae)  Southern  States 

14.  Lygasus  turcicus  (Lygaeidae)  U.  S. 

15.  Dysdercus  suturellus  (Pyrrhocorids)  Southern  States 

16.  Metapodius  femoratus  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

17.  Pachylis  gigas  3  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

18.  Pachylis  gigas  ?  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

19.  Metapodius  terminalis  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

20.  Oncopeltis  fasciatus  (Lygaeidae)  U.  S. 

21.  Oncopeltis  fasciatus  color  var. 

22.  Chariesterus  antennator  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

23.  Leptocoris  3-vittata  (Coreidae)  Western  States 

24.  Alydus  eurinus  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

25.  Alydus  5-spinosus  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

26.  Anasa  armigera  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

27.  Anasa  tristis  (Coreida)  U.  S. 

28.  Leptoglossus  phyllopus  (Coreidae)  Southern  States 

29.  Leptoglossus  oppositus  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

30.  Archimerus  calcarator  (Coreidie)  U.  S. 

31.  Euthoctha  galeator  (Coreidae)  U.  S. 

32.  Stenopoda  culiciformis  (Reduvidte)  Southern  States 
^^.   Reduvius  personatus  (Reduvids)  U.  S. 

34.  Hammatocerus  purcis  (Reduvidae)  Southern  States 

3s.  Conorhinus  sanguisuga  (Reduvidae)  Southern  States 

36.  Phymata  erosa  (PhymatidK)  U.  S. 

37.  Apiomerus  pictipes  (Reduvidae)  Western  States 

38.  Melanolestes  abdominalis  (Reduvidae)  Western  States 

39.  Melanolestes  picipes  (Reduvidae)  U.  S. 

40.  Sirthenea  carinata  (Reduvidae)  Southern  States 

41.  Prionidus  cristatus  (Reduvidae)  Southern  States 

42.  Rasahus  biguttatus  (Reduvida;)  Western  States 

43.  Milyas  cinctus  (Reduvids)  U.  S. 

44.  Sinea  diadema  (Reduvidae)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


^^.1 


A 


43  <* 


THE  TOAD  BUGS 

(Family  Galgitlidce.) 

The  odd  and  ugly  little  insects  of  this  group  have  been 
appropriately  termed  the  "toad-shaped  bugs."  The  short, 
broad  body  and  the  projecting  eyes,  as  well  as  the  dull  mottled 
colors,  are  toad-like.  They  are  not  true  water  bugs,  but  live  in 
moist  places  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  ponds.     Unlike  the 


Fig.  172. — Galgulus  oculatus  Fab.     Greatly  enlarged 
(After  Lugger.) 

true  water  bugs,  they  have  no  ocelli,  and  are  in  other  ways  quite 
different  structurally.  It  is  not  a  large  family,  and  only  twenty 
species  are  known,  of  which  three  inhabit  the  United  States. 
Galgulus  oculatus  Fab.  is  a  common  species,  and  its  life  history 
should  be  thoroughly  studied. 


281 


THE  MARSH  TREADERS 

(Family  Hydromctridce.) 


Fig.   173. — Hydrometra  lineata. 
(After  Comstock.j 

These  are  very  slender  aquatic  bugs  with  a  greatly  prolonged 
head.  We  have  only  one  species,  Limnobates  lineata  Say, 
which  crawls  around  on  soft  mud  or  on  water,  preferring  stag- 
nant pools. 


Life  History  of  a  Marsii  Treader 

(Hydrometra  lineata.) 

This  rather  common  form  is  frequently  to  be  found  among 
the  aquatic  vegetation  at  the  borders  of  ponds  and  slow  streams. 
its  life  history  has  been  studied  and  admirably  portrayed  in  the 
Canadian  Entomologist  for  March,  1900,  by  Mr.  J.  O.  Martin,  of 
Cornell  University.  The  elongated  body  of  the  insect  is  borne 
on  hair-like  legs  and  resembles  a  bit  of  twig  or  grass.  There 
are  several  generations  during  the  summer,  and  the  insect 
hibernates  as  an  adult  under  the  rubbish  along  the  banks  and 
lays  its  eggs  early  in  May.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  and  are 
282 


The  Marsh  Treaders 

glued  to  the  stems  of  grasses  along  the  stream.  They  are  about 
two  mm.  long  and  are  spindle-shaped.  The  number  of  eggs 
must  be  small,  since  they  are  so  large  that  four  or  five  would  fill 
the  abdomen  of  a  female.  They  are  covered  with  a  horny 
coating  which  has  longitudinal  ribs,  and  are  marked  with  a 
hexagonal  pattern.  In  seventeen  days  the  young  insect  emerges 
from  the  egg  and  molts  tlve  times  before  becoming  adult.  It 
feeds  upon  the  juices  of  insects  which  fall  into  the  water,  and, 
of  course,  there  are  many  of  these  along  the  grassy  borders  of 
ponds.  Mr.  Martin  has  seen  ten  of  these  little  water  bugs  sur- 
round a  single  insect,  all  of  their  heads  in  the  direction  of  common 
interest,  and  their  bodies  radiating  outward.  The  body  and  legs 
of  the  bug  are  covered  with  minute  hairs  which  prevents  the 
creature  from  becoming  wet,  and  it  is  constantly  engaged  in 
lifting  its  legs  into  the  air  and  drying  them,  for  if  they  become 
wet  they  sink  through  the  surface  film  of  the  water. 


283 


THE  IVATER  ST  RIDERS 

(Family  Hydrobatidie. ) 

In  this  group  belong  most  of  the  curious,  slender,  long- 
legged  creatures  known  as  water  striders,  which  dart  about  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  with  such  rapidity  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  capture  them.  It  is  a  large  group  and  contains  many  different 
forms    which    are   included  in   several  subfamilies.     They  are 


Fig.  174. — Hygrotrechus  remigis  Say.     (After  Lugger.) 

found  upon  salt  as  well  as  upon  fresh  water.  They  have  prom- 
inent eyes,  a  stout  beak,  long  antennae,  and  a  usually  tapering 
abdomen.  Two  different  forms  of  the  adult  occur  with  most 
species,  the  one  winged  and  the  other  wingless.  The  Oceanic 
forms  are  most  abundant  in  the  Sargasso  Sea,  resting  upon  and 
breeding  among  the  great  mass  of  accumulated  seaweed.  When 
storms  break  up  this  great  island  of  vegetation  portions  of  it  are 
carried  far  and  wide,  and  some  of  the  Oceanic  water  bugs  are 
therefore  brought  to  our  shores. 

284 


The  Water  Striders 

One  of  the  commonest  water  striders  of  the  United  States 
is  Hygrotrechns  remigis  Say.  It  is  about  a  half-inch  long,  dark- 
brown  in  color,  and  moderately  stout.  It  is  everywhere  seen 
skimming  about  on  the  surface  of  mill-ponds  or  similar  bodies  of 
water.  It  uses  its  slender,  rather  hairy  hind  legs  as  oars,  prac- 
tically rowing  itself  and  frequently  congregates  in  groups  with 
others  of  its  kind  in  quiet  places  as  though  to  talk  over  old  times. 
Full-grown  specimens  are  seen  towards  the  end  of  summer,  and 


Fig.  175. — Rheumatobates  rileyi.     ( Origitial.) 


at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  they  hide  away  under  the  banks 
of  streams  in  mud  or  beneath  leaves,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water  under  stones,  and  wait  until  spring.  As  the  weather 
grows  warmer  they  bob  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
prepare  for  egg-laying.  The  eggs  are  whitish,  translucent,  and 
are  long,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  blunter  at  one  end  than  at  the 
other.  They  are  stuck  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  water 
plants.  The  young  strider  does  not  issue  from  the  egg  by 
pushing  off  a  cap  at  the  end  as  do  other  water  bugs,  but  by 
285 


The  Water  Stridera 

bursting  through  a  slit  which  opens  a  little  below  the  blunt  end 
of  the  egg.     The  duration  of  the  egg  stage  is  about  two  weeks. 

An  extraordinary  water-strider,  known  as  Rheiimatobates 
rileyi,  was  found  near  Washington,  D.  C,  several  years  ago  by 
Mr.  Otto  Heidemann,  and  has  since  been  proved  to  be  rather 
widely  distributed.  It  is  so  extraordinary  an  insect  in  its  general 
appearance  that  it  has  been  adopted  for  the  seal  of  the  Entomo- 
logical Society  of  Washington.  It  is  found  on  still  waters,  such 
as  canals,  and  is  carnivorous  in  its  habits  like  the  other  members 
of  the  family. 

Although  the  water  striders  are  truly  aquatic,  they  are 
structurally  more  closely  allied  to  the  land  bugs  than  to  most  of 
of  the  other  water  bugs,  and  especially  in  that  they  have  free  and 
conspicuous  antennae,  the  water  bugs  of  the  group  Cryptocerata 
having,  as  stated  elsewhere,  the  antennae  hidden  in  a  pocket 
beneath  the  head. 


THE  FLOIVER  BUGS 

(Family  AntltocoridcE.) 

These  insects  are  all  small  and  are  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  bed-bug  family  by  the  possession  of  ocelli  and  wing  covers. 
The  latter  are  usually  well  developed  but  are  occasionally 
abbreviated.  The  head  is  prolonged.  Less  than  200  species 
are  known  of  which  only  twenty-two  are  known  to  inhabit 
North  America.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  very  abundant, 
as  the  little  Triphleps  insidiosus  Say,  and  are  frequently  found 


Fig.  176. — Triphleps  insidiosus. 
(After  Riley. J 

in  the  flowers  of  different  plants.  Probably  all  of  the  Antho- 
coridae  are  carnivorous,  feeding  on  other  insects  and  the  little 
Triphleps  just  mentioned  is  a  voracious  enemy  of  plant-lice, 
lace-bugs  and  other  small  tender  insects.  Some  forms  have 
been  found  in  ants'  nests.  The  life  history  of  none  of  them  has 
been  worked  out  in  this  country  and  Triphleps  insidiosus  offers 
a  good  opportunity  for  investigation. 


287 


THE  BED-BUG  FAMILY 


(Family  Civiicidce.) 

By  more  recent  authors  the  family  is  called  Acanthiidae,  but 
the  present  name  is  preferable.     Only  twelve  species  are  known 

but  the  family  is 
notorious  because 
it  contains  the  dis- 
gusting parasite  of 
human  habitations. 
The  other  species 
are  all  found  in  the 
nests  of  birds  and 
act  and  much  re- 
semble the  true 
bed-bug.  In  this 
group  the  insects 
do  not  possess 
wings  and  only 
rudimentary  wing- 
covers  are  to  be 
seen.  They  are  flat- 
bodied,  the  ocelli 
are  absent  and  the 
beak     rests     in     a 


Fig.  177. — .lEciacus  hinindinis.     (After  Osborn.) 


groove  beneath  the  head.  /Eciacxis  hirundinis  Jenyns  is  common 
to  Europe  and  North  America  and  frequently  occurs  in  this  country 
in  great  numbers  in  the  nests  of  the  common  barn  swallow.  It 
closely  resembles  the  form  found  in  houses,  but  is  darker  in  color 
and  has  shorter  antennae. 


/■  ■-;  ■ 


Plate  XXXII. 
MISCELLANEOUS   ORTHOPTERA 


1.  Periplaneta  orientalis 

2.  Orocharis  saltatrix 

3.  Ectobia  germanica 

4.  Anisolabis  maritima 

5.  Periplaneta  australasiae 

6.  Periplaneta  ainericana 

7.  Periplaneta  orientalis 


HG. 

8.  Ischnoptera  pennsylvanicus 

9.  Gryllus  borealis 

10.  CEcanthus  fasciatus  $ 

1 1.  CEcanthus  fasciatus  5 

12.  Ceuthophilus  grandis 

13.  Diapheromera  femorata 

14.  Brachystola  magna 


The  Insect  Book 


The  Bed-Bug  Family 

Life  History  of  the  Bed-Bug 

(Cimcx  Icctularius  Linn.^ 

Slovenly  man  has  carried  this  abominable  bug  to  all  parts  of 
the  civilized  world.  "Tot.  orbis"  is  the  laconic  expression  of 
its  geographic  range  given  by  Lethierry  and  Severin.  It  has  be- 
come a  true  domestic  animal  and  has  accommodated  itself  well  to 
the  environment  of  human  habitations.  It  has  lost  its  wings,  but 
has  acquired  a  flat  body  which  enables  it  to  hide  in  the  narrowest 
cracks  of  beds  and  walls.  It  has  gained  the  power  of  subsisting 
almost  indefinitely  without  food,  waiting  for  its  meals  with  a 
patience  far  surpassing  that  of  Job. 

The  eggs  of  the  bed-bug  are  minute  white  oval  objects  each 
having  a   projecting   rim   around   one  end.     They  are  laid  in 
clusters  in  such  crevices  as  are  used 
by  the  mature   bugs   for  conceal- 
ment,   and  each    cluster    contains 
from  six  to  fifty  eggs.     The  eggs 
hatch  in  about  eight  days  and  the 
young  bug  pushes  off  the  lid  en- 
closed within  the  projecting  rim  at 
the  end  of  the  egg.     At  first  the 
new-born  insect  is  yellowish-white 
and  nearly  transparent,  but  becomes 
darker  after  it  feeds  and  grows  until        j-jg.  i7S.-Cimex  lectuiarius: 
the  color  of  the  mature  and  well-fed  young. 

.   .     ,  T-i.        I  •      •        1      J  (Redrawn  from  Marlatt. ) 

insect  is  brown.     The  skin  is  shed  ^ 

five  times  and  with  the  last  molt  the  wing  pads  characteristic  of 
the  adult  become  apparent.  The  period  of  growth  from  egg  to 
adult  varies  greatly  with  the  temperature  and  the  food  supply. 
Marlatt  has  reared  them  under  favorable  conditions  (feeding  them 
upon  the  healthy  and  abundant  blood  of  a  complaisant  assistant) 
in  seven  weeks,  but  without  food  they  may  remain  unchanged 
for  many  weeks.  Ordinarily  but  one  meal  is  taken  between 
molts,  so  that  at  least  five  full  meals  must  be  taken  before  maturity 
and  at  least  one  more  by  the  female  before  she  is  ready  for  egg 
laying.  Each  female  is  supposed  to  lay  several  batches  of  eggs. 
The  pronounced  odor  of  this  insect  is  also  possessed  by  cer- 
tain plant  bugs  and  is  produced  by  certain  glands  opening  on  the 
back  of  the  abdomen  with  young  bugs  and  on  the  underside  in 


The  Bed-Bug  Family 

the  metasteinum  with  the  adult.  With  plant  bugs  this  odor 
evidently  protects  them  by  rendering  them  nauseous  to  their 
bird  and  other  vertebrate  enemies.  It  persists  with  the  bed- 
bug; but  here  it  is  detrimental  to  the  species  since  it  reveals  its 
presence  to  its  greatest   enemy — man. 

The   belief  that  bed-bugs    breed  under  the  bark  of  certain 
trees  and  that  houses  built  of  the  wood  of  such  trees  will  be 


Fig.  179. — Cimex  lectularius;  adult, 
(Redrawn  from  Marlatt.) 

infested  with  bugs,  is  due  only  to  the  resemblance  which  cer- 
tain other  bugs,  especially  the  Aradidje,  which  normally  live 
under  tree  bark,  have  to  the  bed-bug.  And  then,  too,  from  the 
ability  which  the  bed-bug  has  of  undergoing  prolonged  fasts, 
it  may  be  found  alive  not  only  in  houses  which  have  been  deserted 
for  a  long  time,  but  about  old  deserted  camps  in  the  woods. 


THE  SHORE  BUGS 

(Faintly  Saldidce.) 

The  active  little  bugs  of  this  family  which  have  been  dubbed 
"shore  bugs"  by  Comstock  for  the  reason  that  they  are  always 
found  upon  the  sea  beach  or  the  shores  of  fresh-water  ponds  or 
lakes  are  not  numerous  in  species,  although  individuals  are  plenti- 
ful. Ninety-seven  species  have  been  described  and  about  thirty 
occur  in  this  country.  Their  color  is  usually  black,  brown  or 
drab  with  whitish  markings,  the  head  is  free  and  the  eyes  prom- 
inent. They  are  carnivorous  and  feed  upon  other  beach  inhabit- 
ing creatures,  being  frequently  seen  with  the  beak  thrust  into  the 
body  of  some  drowned  insect.  Every  sea  beach  from  Cape  Cod 
to  the  Florida  Keys  has  some  kind  of  these  shy  little  bugs  which 
resemble  tiger  beetles  in  their  habits.  Some  of  them  burrow 
under  ground.  The  life  history  of  none  of  them  is  well  known, 
yet  they  offer  an  apparently  easy  field  for  investigation. 

One  swift  and  strong  form  from  Java  has  been  given  the 
generic  name  Velocipeda  by  Bergroth. 


THE  THIN-IVINGED  BUGS 

(Family  Hcnicoccphalidm.) 

This  is  a  remarl<able  family  of  which  only  twelve  species  are 
known,  of  which  two  inhabit  the  United  States.  It  is  allied  to 
the  ReduviidsE,  but  the  front  wings  are  wholly  membranous,  with 
a  distinct  venation  resembling  those  of  certain  saw-flies.     The 


Fig.  179a. — Henicocephalus  culicis. 
Enlarged.     (Original.) 

front  legs  are  greatly  swollen.  The  American  species  are  Heni- 
cocephalus culicis  Uhl.  and  H.  formicinis  Uhl.  The  former  was 
found  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz  under  stones  on  the  shores  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lal^e,  Utah,  and  later  on  the  shores  of  the  Potomac 
River  near  Washington. 


292 


ASSASSIN  BUGS 


(Family  Rediiviidce.) 

This  is  a  large  and  important  family  of  bugs  comprising 

more  than  two  thousand  species  of  which  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  inhabit  the  United  States.  Its 
forms  vary  much  in  structure  and  have 
been  divided  among  thirteen  subfamilies 
and  three  hundred  and  thirty-six  gen- 
era. All  are  predatory  in  their  habits 
and  feed  on  other  insects  which  they 
pierce  and  whose  blood  they  suck  by 
means  of  their  strong,  sharp  beaks. 
From  this  food  some  of  the  subfamilies 
are  known  as  "cannibal  bugs"  or 
"pirate  bugs."  Comstock  calls  them 
the  "assassin  bugs."  With  many 
species  the  beak  is  so  strong  as  to 
readily  pierce  the  skins  of  human  beings, 
and  one  species,  known  as  the  "  blood- 
sucking  cone-nose  "  (Conorhinus  saii- 

guisitga)  so  often  frequents  houses,  es- 
pecially in  the  southwest,  and  is  so  fierce 

a  biter  that  it  is  often  referred  to  as  "  the 

gigantic  bed-bug."     It  seems,  according 

to  Schwarz,  to  normally  inhabit  the  nests 

of  field  mice.     Other  species,  especially 

Melanolestes  picipcs  and  Reduviiis  per- 

sonatiis,  were  especially  abundant  in  the 

eastern   states  in  the  summer  of  1898, 

and  their  bites  were  responsible  for  the 

extraordinary   so-called   "kissing   bug" 

scare  which  was   greatly  advertised  by 

the   newspapers.      A   western    species, 

Rasahtis  binotatus  is   also   a   severe   biter. 
293 


Fig  180. — Conorhinus   sangui- 

suga.     (  Redrawn  from 

Marlatt.) 


Fig.   iSi. —  Reduvius  person- 
atus.  (Author's  illustration.) 


Of  these  "kissing 


Assassin  Bugs 


bugs,"  Rediivins  personatus,  is  a  cosmopolitan  form  which,  in  the 
northern  states,  is  found  in  basements  and  cellars  of  dirty  houses 
and  preys  upon  bed-bugs  and  cockroaches.  When  immature 
it  covers  itself  with  dust  and  presents 
a  very  odd  appearance. 

Some  very  odd  species  are  found 
in  the  subfamily  Emesida-,  which 
have  been  called  "thread-legged 
bugs."  Their  legs  are  excessively 
long  and  they  have  a  peculiar  habit 
of  swinging  the  body  up  and  down. 
One  of  them  frequents  spiders'  webs 
and  robs  the  spiders  of  their  prey. 
The  eggs  of  nearly  all  Reduviids 
are  of  very  strange  appearance  and 
are  frequently  distinguished  by  some 
form  of  protective  resemblance. 
None  of  these  predatory  bugs  seem 
to  possess  the  strong  and  frequently 
disagreeable  odor  so  characteristic  of  many  of  the  plant  bugs. 


Fig.  182. —  Kasahus  biguttatus. 
( A ttthor' s  ilhistratiojt.) 


Life    History  of  tine  Wheel    Bug 

(Aril lis  cristatiis  L,.J 

This   is   a   large   predatory   bug   common   all   through  our 
southern  states  and  Mexico  and  which  extends  up  into  southern 


Fig.  183. — Melanolestes   abdominalis. 
(Aiit/wr's  illustration.) 


Fig.  184. — Milyas  cinctus. 
(After  Riley.) 


Assassin  Bugs 

Illinois  and  New  Jersey  and  even  to  Long  Island  and  Rhode 
Island.  It  is  popularly  known  as  the  "wheel  bug"  and  some- 
times by  the  negroes  as  the  "  devil's  riding  horse  "  and  is  referred 
to  in  the  older  books  as  Reduvius  novenarius  and  Priouotiis  or 
Prionidiis  cristatus. 

The  eggs  of  the  wheel  bug  look  like  miniature  leather  bottles 
standing  on  end  and  in  hexagonal  clusters,  seventy  or  more  in  a 
group,  and  attached  to  the  bark  of  trees,  on  fence  rails,  or  where- 
ever  the  female  chances  to  be.  In  this  stage  the  insect  passes 
the  winter.  In  the  late  spring  the  cap  of  the  bottle  is  pushed  off 
and  the  young  bug  emerges.     The  young  insect  has  a  blood-red 


Fig.   185. — Emesa  longipes.     (After  Lugger.) 


abdomen  and  its  thorax  is  marked  with  black.  In  walking  it 
frequently  elevates  the  abdomen,  curving  it  over  forwards.  It  feeds 
upon  soft-bodied  insects,  its  attacks,  while  young,  being  confined 
mainly  to  such  weak,  delicate  species  as  plant-Iice.  As  they 
grow  larger  they  attack  larger  insects  and  when  full-grown 
destroy  large  caterpillars.  They  seem  to  inject  a  poison  into  the 
wound  made  by  the  beak  and  Glover  tells  of  a  bite  on  his  thumb 
which  was  severely  poisoned  and  gave  him  great  trouble.  After 
four  molts  the  peculiar  crest  on  the  thorax  appears  which  has 
given  this  insect  its  specific  scientific  name  cristatus  (crested) 
and  its  popular  name  "  wheel  bug."  This  is  a  semicircular 
longitudinal  crest  bearing  nine  teeth,  prongs  or  cogs  like  a 
cog-wheel. 

The  full  grown  bug  is  sordid  black  in  color.     It  captures  its 
prey  not  by  agility  but  by  stealth.     Its  coloration  is  protective 
and  it  slowly  crawls  up  to  some  caterpillar  or  other  insect,  ad- 
295 


Assassin  Bugs 

vancing  one  leg  after  another  with  a  movement  so  slow  as 
almost  to  be  imperceptible.  When  once  within  striking  distance, 
however,  the  beak  is  thrust  into  the  victim  which  is  at  the  same 
time  grasped  with  the  front  legs  with  a  movement  which  is  quite 
the  reverse  of  slow. 


Fig.   i86. — Arilus  cristatus.     (After  Glffver.) 

The  wheel  bug  is  a  very  beneficial  insect.  It  is  a  common  in- 
habitant of  southern  cities  and  in  such  places  as  Baltimore  and 
Washington  is  an  important  factor  in  the  destruction  of  the 
numerous  caterpillars  which  defoliate  shade  trees. 


296 


h'jlrlu  i:<\\ 
.izulunin-i  I 


Plate  XXXIII. 
LONG-HORNED   AND   SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS 


FIG. 
I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 

S. 
6. 
7- 


Platyzosteria  ingens 
Xiphidium  fasciatus 
Hapithus  agitator 
Camptonotus  scudderi 
Scudderia  pistillata  (side) 
Q^canthus  bipunctatus 
Amblycorypha  uhleri 
8.  Orchelimum  spinulosum 


FIG. 

9.  Tettix  arenosus 

10.  Tettigidea  polymorpha 

1 1.  Orchelimum  ensifer 

12.  Nomotettix  cristatus 

13.  Gonatiste  grisea 

14.  Amblycorypha  rotundifolia 

15.  Oligonyx  scudderi 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXXIII. 


THE  AMBUSH  BUGS 

(Family  Pliyniaiida;.) 

The  strong  and  ferocious  predatory  bugs  of  this  group  num- 
ber only  forty-three  described  species,  of  which  but  five  live  in 
the  United  States,  yet  it  is  structurally  and  economically  an  im- 
portant family.  The  head  is  shaped  like  that  of  the  Aradidae,  the 
front  legs  are  enlarged  and  fitted  for  grasping,  frequently  lacking 


a. 

Fig.   187. — Phymati  wolffii. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 

the  tarsi,  and  its  beak  and  general  appearance  ally  it  to  the 
Reduviidae.  These  insects  are  tough  and  horny,  and  in  the 
tropics  are  apt  to  be  armed  with  spines.  Phymata  wolffii  Stal., 
our  commonest  species,  is  yellowish-green  in  color,  with  a  brown 
or  blackish  band  across  its  abdomen.  It  frequents  yellowish 
flowers  like  the  ox-eye  daisy,  with  which  its  color  harmonizes, 
disguising  its  presence  from  the  insects  which  visit  such  flowers, 
and  upon  which  it  preys.  From  this  fact  Comstock  has  called 
tnese  insects  "the  ambush  bugs,"  and  this  insect  affords  our 
best  exponent  of  what  Professor  Poulton  calls  "specific  aggres- 
sive resemblance" — that  is,  the  resemblance  of  a  predatory 
species  to  some  special  object  to  facilitate  the  capture  of  its  prey. 
The  full  life  history  of  none  of  the  Phymatids  is  known,  and  P. 
wolffii  should  be  followed  through  its  life  round  by  some  careful 
observer. 


THE  FLAT  BARK-BUGS 


(Family  Aradidce.) 

These  are  small,  strangely-formed  bugs  found  commonly 
under  the  bark  of  trees,  where  they  feed  upon  fungus  growths. 
They  are  all  extremely  flat,  and  look,  as  Comstock  says,  as  if 
they  had  been  stepped  upon.  It  is  these  insects  which  are  often 
mistaken  for  bed-bugs  and  that 
give  rise  to  the  idea  that  the 
household  pest  breeds  naturally 
in  such  situations.  The  abdomen 
is  broader  than  the  wings,  and 
frequently  encloses  them  like  a 
frame.  It  is  not  a  large  family, 
less  than  three  hundred  species 
being  known,  of  which  about 
thirty  occur  in  the  United  States. 
The  prevailing  color  of  these  in- 
sects is  brown,  sometimes  varied 
with  reddish  or  pale  markings. 
A  radii  s  creiiatiis  Say  is  the  largest 
of  the  species  found  in  this  coun- 
try, reaching  nearly  half  an  inch 
in  length,  and  Aradits  similis 
Say  and  Netirocteims  simplex 
Uhl.  are  the  commonest  species 
in  the  northeastern  states.  Mr.  Heidemann  has  found  the  eggs  of 
the  last-named  species.  They  very  closely  resemble  the  eggs  of  the 
bed-bug,  having  the  same  size,  markings,  and  the  same  whitish 
color.  The  life  history  of  both  these  last-mentioned  species 
should  be  carefully  worked  out,  as  they  represent  different  sub- 
families. 


-Aradus  robustus  Uhl. 
(After  Lugger.) 


298 


THE  LACE  BUGS 

(Family  TingitidcE.) 

The  curious  little  bugs  of  this  family  have  rather  aptly  been 
termed  "lace  bugs"  by  Comstock  from  the  fact  that  the  wing 
veins  are  thickened  and  form  a  lace-like  pattern  in  most  of 
the  species.  These  insects  are  ail  small,  have  two-jointed  feet 
and  usually  knobbed  antennas.     They  are  all   plant-feeders,  and 


Fig.  1S9. — Gargaphia 

angulata. 
(After  Chittenden.) 


Fig.  190. — Corythuca 

arcuata. 
(After  Comstock.) 


the  brown,  rusty  appearance  which  the  leaves  of  certain  trees, 
notably  sycamores,  acquire  in  summer  is  due  to  their  attacks. 
Rather  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  known 
of  which  twenty-five  inhabit  the  United  States,  but  there  are, 
undoubtedly,  many  unnamed  and  undeveloped  forms.  As  a  rule 
the  eggs  are  laid  in  leaves  and  young  twigs  and  the  whole  hfe  of 
the  insect  is  spent  in  sucking  sap.  They  usually  overwinter 
as  adults  hidden  away  in  bark  crevices.  There  are  two  sub- 
families and  the  members  of  one,  Piesminiv,  are  not  so  lace-like 
as  are  the  others,  the  Tins^itince. 


The  Lace  Bugs 


Life  History  of  the  Hawthorn   Lace  Bug 

( CorytJuica   arcuata    Say.^ 

More  than  twenty  years  ago  I  saw  most  of  the  leaves  of 
a  Hawthorn  tree  at  Washington  turning  brown  and  rusty  and 
on  examining  them  found  the  beautiful  little  Tingitid,  shown  at 
Fig.  190,  present  in  all  stages  of  development.  Projecting  from 
the  leaf  surface  in  groups  of  from  ten  to  thirty  along  both  sides 
of  the  prominent  leaf  veins  were  certain  minute  brown  funnel- 
shaped  objects  which  were  found  to  be  the  eggs.  Each  egg  is 
laid  on  end  and  is  covered  with  a  brown  sticky  substance  which 
rapidly  hardens  and  holds  it  to  the  leaf  surf;jce.  This  brown  gum 
adheres  so  strongly  to  the  egg  that  it  is  impossible  to  remove 
it  without  crushing  the  egg,  and  it  is  more  copious  near  the  base 
so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  an  actual  insertion  into  the  leaf 
tissue.  The  top  of  the  funnel  has  a  porous  cap  which  the  in- 
sect removes  in  emerging.  The  newly  hatched  bug  grows 
rather  rapidly  and  casts  it  skin  five  times  before  becoming  full 
grown.     While  yet  immature  it  is  of  the  same  dirty-brown  color 


Fig.   191. — Coiythuca 
arcuata:  eggs  and 

young. 
(After  Comstock.) 


Fig.  192. — Piesnia 

cinerea. 

(After  Riley.) 


as  the  substance  covering  the  egg  and  but  little  darker  than  the 
withering  leaf.  It  is  of  a  broad,  flat,  oval  shape,  and  spines  seem  to 
project  from  almost  every  portion  of  its  body.  It  looks,  under 
the  microscope,  more  like  a  lobe  of  prickly  cactus  than  anything 
else.  A  sticky  honey  dew  is  excreted  by  these  bugs  and  their 
cast-off  skins  adhere  to  the  leaf  and  make  it  appear  as  if  there 
were  many  more  insects  present  than  is  actually  the  case. 

During  the  winter  the  dead    leaves   under  the   trees  were 
found  to  contain  living  and  healthy  eggs,  but  the  insect  custo- 
marily hibernates  as  a  full-grown  and  winged  bug. 
300 


THE  LEAF-BUGS 

(Family  Capsidce.) 

The  usually  rather  slender  and  delicate  bugs  known  as  "leaf- 
bugs  "  or  "true  plant  bugs,"  having  two  cells  in  the  wing 
membrane,  belong  to  this  family.  More  than  one  thousand 
species  are  known,  and  of  these  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
inhabit  the  United  States.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  largest  group  of 
Heteroptera,  and  thousands  of  species  are  as  yet  undescribed. 
Mr.  O.  Heidemann  tells  me  that  he  has  in  his  collection  more 
than  two  hundred  undescribed  species  from  the  United  States. 
They  are  not  all  true  plant  feeders,  and  very  few  of  them  occur 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  become  important  crop  enemies.  Some 
of  them  habitually  prey  on  other  insects,  and  1  have  seen  Campto- 
brochis  grandis  sucking  the  eggs  of  the  imported  elm-leaf  beetle 
(Galeriicella  luteola),  while  Mr.  Heidemann  states  that  Lopidea 
media  Say  once  alighted  on  the  back  of  his  hand,  and  that  (with 
a  true  scientific  interest)  he  watched  it  pierce  the  skin  and  suck 
his  blood  for  some  minutes.  A  common  species  in  the  east, 
Oncognaikus  binotatiis  Fabr.,  frequents  the  heads  of  timothy 
grass.  Ftilvius  anthocoroides  Uhl.  is  found  commonly  on  lichens 
on  old  stumps.  Lygiis  pratensis,  known  as  the  "tarnished 
plant  bug,"  is  present  in  all  flower  and  vegetable  gardens,  and 
causes  what  is  called  the  "buttoning"  of  strawberries.  The 
natural  egg  place  of  this  common  insect  is  not  known,  but  the 
rest  of  its  life  has  been  well  worked  out  by  Woodworth,  although 
there  is  probably  one  more  molt  than  he  has  observed,  /.  e.,  five 
instead  of  four.  Halticiis  uhleri  Giard,  known  as  the  "garden 
flea-hopper,"  is  common  in  gardens  and  is  injurious  to  flowers 
and  vegetables. 


The  Leaf-Bug 

Typical  Life  History  of  a  Leaf-Bug 

( Pacilocapsus  lincatiis  Fabr.^ 

This  insect,  known  as  the  four-lined  leaf-bug,  is  found  all 
over  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  a 
common  garden  pest,  sucking  the  sap  of  gooseberry  bushes, 
currants,  dahlias  and  many  other  plants.  The  insect  passes  the 
winter    in    the  egg  stage.     The  eggs  are  inserted   in   slits  cut 


Fig.  193.— Halticus  uhleri.     (After  Chittenden.) 

lengthwise  into  the  stems  of  plants  extending  through  the  bark 
and  wood  nearly  half  way  to  the  pith.  The  slits  may  be  an 
eighth  of  inch  in  length,  and  into  each  of  them  is  pushed  from 
two  to  fourteen  eggs.  These  are  crowded  side  by  side,  are 
about  1.6  mm.  long,  smooth,  cylindrical,  slightly  curved,  light- 
yellow  in  color,  and  with  the  outer  third  capped  with  a  white 
striate  portion.  From  these  eggs  the  young  hatch  in  the  spring 
— the  latter  part  of  May  in  central  New  York— and  feed  upon  the 
302 


The   Leaf-Bug 

tender  new  growth  of  leaves  for  from  two  to  three  weeks, 
undergoing  five  molts.  The  adult  bugs  appear  early  in  June,  and 
often  spread  to  the  different  surrounding  plants.  Egg-laying 
begins  in  the  latter  part  of  June  ;  the  adults  disappear  in  July, 
and,  as  above  stated,  the  insect  hibernates  in  the  egg  stage. 
There  is  only  one  generation  each  year  in  New  York,  but  in  the 
southern  states  there  are  more.  The  young  insect  when 
first  hatched  from  the  egg  is  of  a  shining  vermilion  color,  marked 
with  large  blackish  spots  on  the  thorax.     The  antennae  and  legs 


Fig.  194. — PcEcilocapsus  lineatus  Fab.:  a,  adult;  b,  c,  immature.    ( After  Lugger.  J 
Eggs.     (After  Slingerland.) 

are  of  a  greenish-black  color.  The  red  color  is  retained  until  the 
last  stage  before  the  adult  is  reached,  then  the  large  black  spots  on 
the  thorax  seem  to  mark  the  beginning  of  wing  pads,  which  have 
gradually  become  more  and  more  apparent  after  each  molt.  In 
the  adult  insect  a  radical  change  in  color  is  found.  The  general 
color  is  bright  orange-yellow;  the  legs  and  the  wing  covers  are 
of  dark  apple-green,  but  the  wing  covers  and  the  thorax  are 
marked  with  four  black  stripes. 

This  life  history  was  first  worked  out  by  Professor  Slinger- 
land, of  Cornell  University. 


303 


THE  SQVASH-BUG  AND  ITS  ALLIES 

(Family  Coreidce.) 

This  is  a  large  and  important  fomiiy,  divided  into  many  sub- 
families and  containing  about  1,500  species  of  which  nearly  200 
inhabit  the  United  States.  The  group  has  no  popular  name 
although  these  insects,  in  common  with  the  members  of  several 
allied  families  are  known  as  "plant  bugs."  Comstock  calls  the 
Coreidse  "the  squash-bug  family"  after  its  best-known  represen- 


195. — Leptoglossus 
phyllopus 


Fig.  196. — Metapodius 
femoratus 


tative,  but  of  course  this  is  not  a  distinctive  name,  nor  does  it 
seem  possible  to  coin  one.  The  Coreidse  are  very  diverse  in 
shape  and  structure,  some  being  broad  and  clumsy  and  others 
thin.  Some  have  curiously  modified  legs  like  the  leaf-footed 
plant  bug  (Leptoglossus  phyllopus)  and  the  thick-thighed  Meta- 
podius (Metapodius  femoratus)  while  others  have  slender  normal 
legs.     All  of  these  bugs  feed  on  the  juices  of  plants  and  some  of 

3°4 


The  Squash-Bug  and  Its  Allies 

them  are  well-known  enemies  of  crops.  A  curious  tropical 
genus — Phyllomorpha — carries  its  eggs  upon  its  back.  A  com- 
mon species  in  the  western  United  States  known  as  the  box- 
elder  plant  bug  (Leptocoris  trivittaius)  frequently  does  much 
damage  to  the  box-elder  trees  which  from  their  rapid  growth  are 
commonly  planted  on  western  tree  claims. 


Life  History  of  the  Squash-Bug 

(Aiiasa  tnstis  De  Geer.^ 

The  common  "squash-bug,"  as  this  insect  is  called,  is  found 
all  over  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  Central  America.  It  is  a 
serious  enemy  to  garden  plants  of  the  pumpkin  family  (Cticur- 
bitacea'),  but  does  not  damage  other  vegetation.  The  tgg  is  1.5 
mm.  long,  stout,  somewhat  flattened  on  three  sides  and  is  of  a 


Fig.  197. — Corizus  hyalinus. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.J 


Fig.  198. — Leptocoris  trivittata. 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.J 


yellowish-brown  or  dark  bronze  color.  From  twenty  to  forty  eggs 
are  laid  in  a  group,  each  one  rather  well  separated  from  the  others 
and  placed  either  on  the  under  or  upper  surface  of  a  leaf,  or  on  a 
stem.  When  first  hatched  the  little  bug  is  light  green  in  color 
with  beautiful  rose-colored  legs,  antennae  and  beak.  Later  the 
head  and  thorax  become  black  and  the  abdomen  gray.  There  are 
five  distinct  molts  and  the  full  grown  bug  is  the  dark,  sordid,  ugly 
30s 


The  Squash-Bug  and  Its  Allies 

and  ill-smelling  creature  commonly  noticed  in  vegetable  gardens. 
The  adult  insect  hibernates,  thrusting  itself  into  some  protected 
crevice  and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  late  spring  or  early  summer. 
These  hatch  in  about  two  weeks  and  the  insect  may  become  full 


Fig.  199. — Anasa  armigera.     ( After  Chittenden.) 

grown  in  less  than  a  month.  There  is  no  evidence  that  there  is 
more  than  one  generation  annually  from  the  District  of  Columbia 
northward,  but  further  south  there  are  probably  more. 

Observers  need  not  be  surprised  at  the  fiiilure  of  the  eggs  to 
hatch  as  they  are  frequently  parasitized  by  two  minute  egg- 
parasites  Hadronotus  anasce  and  Ocencyrtus  anascB. 


306 


THE  COTTON  STAINER   AND   ITS   ALLIES 

(Family  Pyrrhocoridce.) 

This  is  not  a  large  family.  It  comprises  less  than  three  hun- 
dred species,  and  only  about  twenty-five  are  known  in  the 
United  States.  Most  of  the  species  are  tropical  or  sub-tropical. 
They  are  distinguished  from  the  Lygasids  by  the  absence  of 
ocelli.     As  a  rule,  they  are  stout,   moderately  large  bugs,  and 


Fig.  200. — Largus  succinctus. 
(From  U.  S.  Dfpt.  Agr.J 

are  frequently  marked  with  red.  The  commonest  of  our  native 
species  is  Largus  succinctus,  an  insect  of  very  wide  distribution, 
since  it  occurs  from  New  Jersey  to  Mexico.  It  is  a  brownish- 
black  species  with  the  sides  of  the  thorax  margined  with  orange 
or  red.  It  is  commonly  found  along  the  borders  of  oak  woods, 
and  the  adults  appear  in  July  and  August.  The  young  stages 
are  of  a  brilliant  steel-blue  color,  with  reddish  legs  and  a  bright 
red  spot  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen. 

The  full  life  history  of  this  species  should  be  worked  up. 
307 


The  Cotton  Stainer  and  Its  Allies 

Life  History  of  the  Cotton  Stainer 

(Dysdcrais  siitiircUiis  H.-SchfJ 

This  insect,  which  is  found  exclusively  in  our  Southern 
States,  is  known  popularly  by  the  name  of  the  "cotton  stainer." 
it  is  found  also  in  the  West  Indies.  Its  natural  food  is  probably 
a  rose-mallow  (Hibiscus),  but  it  feeds  upon  the  bolls  of  the 
cotton  plant  and  also  sucks  the  juices  of  oranges.  It  is  marked 
with  red  and  is  a  very  beautiful  insect,  and  derives  its  popular 
name  from  the  fact  that  it  stains  the  cotton  in  the  bursting  bolls 


01. — Dysdercus  suturellus.     (From  Insect  Life.) 


by  its  excretions,  which  are  of  a  yellowish  color.  Experiments 
have  been  made  with  this  insect  looking  toward  its  use  as  a  dye, 
and  the  whole  substance  of  the  insect  can  be  converted  into  a 
rich  orange-yellow  dye,  which  can  readily  be  fixed  on  woolens 
or  silk  by  the  alum  mordant  liquor.  The  eggs,  to  the  number  of 
twenty  or  thirty,  are  deposited  upon  the  leaves  or  stalks  of  the 
cotton  plant,  and  are  also  loosely  dropped  in  the  sand.  The  insect 
molts  five  times  and  breeds  apparently  steadily  all  through  the 
year,  so  that  there  are  several  generations.  Careful  observations 
on  the  eggs  and  the  first  stage  are  needed. 
30S 


THE  STILT  BUGS 

(Family  Bcrytida.) 


Fig.  201  a. — Jalysus   spinosus 
(After  Lugger.) 

This  group,  rather  closely  allied  to  the  Coreidse,  is  of  much 
smaller  extent.  It  includes  slender  plant  bugs  which  have  the 
thighs  thickened  at  the  tip.  Some  of  them  are  very  slender  and 
have  long,  thin  legs,  from  which  fact  they  have  been  termed 
"stilt  bugs."  Only  six  species  are  known  to  occur  in  the 
United  States  and  the  life  history  of  none  of  them  has  been  care- 
fully worked  out.  Jalysus  spinosus,  our  commonest  species,  a 
sluggish  little  insect  which  is  to  be  found  on  the  undergrowth  in 
oak  woods,  all  through  the  summer,  from  Maine  to  Georgia  and 
westward  to  Texas  and  Arizona,  would  be  a  good  species  to 
study  carefully. 

309 


THE  CHINCH-BUG  FAMILY 

(Family  LygaidcB.) 


This  is  one  of  tlie  large  fomilies  of  plant  bugs,  comprising 
rather  more  than  1,300  species,  distributed  in  thirteen  subfamilies 
and  208  genera.  Of  these  about  175  species  are  known  in  the 
United  States.  No  good  popular  name  has  been  proposed  for 
this  group.  Comstock  calls  it  the  "  chinch-bug  family  "  from  its 
most  famous  representative,  but  of  course  this  is  not  a  distinctive 
name.  The  LygKids  are  distinguished  from  other  bugs  chiefly 
by  the  membrane  of  the  front  wing,  which  has  four  or  tlve 
simple  veins,  and  by  the  antennae,  which  are  inserted  low  down 
on  the  side  of  the  head.  Many  of 
these  bugs,  when  full  grown,  have  the 
wings  either  long  or  aborted,  so  that 
in  the  same  species  there  are  both  long- 
winged  and  short-winged  forms.  All 
live  on  the  juices  of  plants,  and  the 
family  contains  many  injurious  forms. 
The  most  prominent  of  these  is  the 
chinch-bug  (Blissus  lencoplertts),  a 
little  bug  which  occurs  in  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies  and  all 
over  the  United  States  and  north  into 
Canada.  It  feeds  on  Indian  corn  and 
on  wheat  and  other  small  grains  and 
grasses,  puncturing  the  stalks,  and 
causing  them  to  wilt.  Its  great  noto- 
riety as  a  crop  destroyer  arises  from 
the  incalculable  numbers  in  which  it  appears  in  dry  seasons. 
The  average  annual  loss  which  this  insect  causes  to  the  United 
States  cannot  be  less  than  $20,000,000. 

Another  very   common   and    destructive   insect   belonging 
to  this  family   is    the   so-called    "false   chinch-bug"    (Nyiius 
310 


— Myodocha  serripes 
(After  Lugger.) 


The  Chinch-Bug  Family 

angustatus  Uhl.)  which  although  it  belongs  to  a  different  subfamily 
is  frequently  mistaken  by  farmers  for  the  true  chinch-bug.  It  dam- 
ages grapevines,  strawberry  plants  and  many  garden  vegetables, 
puncturing  the  leaves  with  its  beak  and  causing  them  to  wilt. 
The  life  history  of  this  bug  should  be  worked  up.  We  do  not 
know  its  eggs,  the  number  of  molts  or  the  number  of  genera- 
tions. One  of  these  bugs,  known  as  Melanochiiiis  nttniideus 
Say,  according  to  Heidemann,  feeds  on  sycamore  leaves  and 
passes  the  winter  in  the  half-grown  condition  thrust  down 
in  the  crevices  of  the  "  button  bolls." 


Life    History  of  the  Ciiincin-Bug 

fB/issns  kucopteriis  Say.^ 

The  chinch-bug  is  a  small,  dark  colored  insect  with  white 
wings.  It  is  only  3  mm.  long  and  is  rather  slender.  It  passes 
the  winter  as  a  full-grown  bug,  hidden  away  in  clumps  of  old 


Fig.  203. — Nysius  angustatus. 
(After  Riley.) 


Fig.  204. — Blissus  leucoptenis. 
(After  Riley.) 


grasses  or  in  other  protected  spots.  The  egg  is  nearly  i  mm. 
long,  elongate-oval,  and  of  an  amber  color.  About  five  hundred 
are  laid  by  each  female  and  are  thrust  into  grass  sheaths  near  the 
ground,  or  upon  the  stem  at  or  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
They  are  laid  in  the  spring  and  the  young  hatch  soon  afterwards. 
The  newly  hatched  bugs  are  pale  yellow  at  first  but  grow  red. 
They  molt  four  times  before  becoming  adult  and  grow  darker  in 
color  and  the  adult  is  dark  gray  or  nearly  black.      Over  most 


The  Chinch-Bug  Family 

of  the  United  States  there  are  two  generations,  the  eggs  for 
the  second  generation  being  laid  in  late  July  or  early  August. 
In  all  stages  the  chinch-bug  is  gregarious  and  clusters  upon 
grains  and  grasses  in  such  numbers  as  to  quickly  destroy  them. 


Fig.  205. — Blissus  leucopterus.     (After  Riley.) 

They  migrate  in  search  of  food  and  after  wheat  harvest  they 
usually  travel  to  the  nearest  cornfield  and  the  second  generation  is 
developed  on  this  crop.  Many  of  the  adults  have  only  half 
developed  wings  and  this  form,  which  is  called  "  micropterous  " 


Fig.   206. — Blissus  leucopterus. 
(After  Riley.) 


is  apparently  more  abundant  near  the  sea-coast  than  elsewhere. 
A  fungus  disease  is  very  prevalent  in  wet  weather  and  efforts 
have  been  made  to  propagate  this  disease  and  (with  some 
measure  of  success)  artificially  introduce  it  into  infested  fields. 


312 


THE  STINK-BUGS  AND   THEIR  ALLIES 


(Family  Pcntatomidce.) 

In  this  large  family  of  bugs,  wliich  comprises  nearly  four 
thousand  species,  of  which  about  three  hundred  inhabit  the 
United  States,  we  find  a  curious  difference  in  habit   in  that  while 

some  of  them  are  exclusively 
plant  feeders  others  feed  both 
upon  plants  and  upon  other 
insects.  This  differentiation 
in  habit  corresponds  in  a 
measure  with  the  subfamily 
grouping.  As  a  rule  these 
insects  are  flat  and  broad,  and 
the  antennae  are  five-jointed. 
The  scutellum  is  enlarged  and 
in  some  (the  Scutellerinae) 
covers  the  whole  abdomen. 
Many  species  possess  an  extremely  bad  odor  and  taste,  which 
has  led  Comstock  to  term  the  group  "the  stink-bug  family." 
Very  many  well- 
known  and  common 
insects  belong  to  this 
group.  The  harle- 
quin cabbage  bug 
(Miirgantia  histrion- 
ica  Hahn.)  is  a  well- 
known  species  in  cab- 
bage fields  south  of 
New  Jersey.  It  is  a 
serious  enemy  to  cru- 
ciferous     vegetables. 


Fig.  207.- — Murgantia  histrionica. 
(After  Riley.) 


Fig.  20S. — Euschistus  variolarius. 
(Author's  illustration. J 


In  parts  of  Georgia  it  is  still  known  as  the  "Abe  Lincoln  bug," 

and  in  Texas  as  the    "third-party   bug."     The   eggs  are  very 

313 


The  Stink- Bugs  and  Their  Allies 


beautiful  banded  objects,  laid  in  clusters  on  the  leaves  of  cabbage, 
and  the  full-grown  bug  is  beautifully  mottled  with  black  and  red. 
The  so-called  spined  soldier  bug  ( Podisus  spiuosus)  is  a  plant- 
feeder,  and  also  preys  upon  insects,  especially  caterpillars.  The 
beautiful  bug  known  as  Stiretriis  anchorago 
is  largely  predatory,  and  feeds  upon  many 
different  kinds  of  insects.  The  green  soldier 
bug  CNe:(ara  hilaris  Say)  and  the  common 
species  known  as  Eiiscliistus  servus  are  both 
plant  and  animal  feeders. 

The  eggs  of  nearly  all  of  these  insects  are 
laid  in  clusters  on  leaves  or  other  objects,  and 
vary  greatly  in  color  and  sculpturing.  Many  of  them  are  para- 
sitized by  the  little  Proctotrypid  flies  of  the  genus  Teleas. 


Fig  209. — Corimelasna 

pulicaria.    (After 

Riley. J 


o. — Brochymena  annulata.     (From  Insect  Life.) 


Typical   Life   History 

(Podisus  scrievcnti'is    Uhl.) 


This  species  which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  northern  states 
lays  its  eggs  in  small  clusters  of  from  ten  to  thirty  each  on  the 
bark  of  trees  or  on  leaves  or  other  objects.     They  are  bronze  in 

3'4 


The  Stink-Bugs  and  Their  Allies 

color  growing  darker  up  to  the  hatching  period.  They  are  nearly 
circular  in  shape,  and  are  furnished  with  a  well-defined  circular 
cap.  The  upper  part  of  the  egg  is  covered  by  irregular  rows  of 
minute  short  spines,  while  around  the  edge  of  the  cap  is  a  row  of 
long,  curved,  knobbed  spines.  They  hatch  in  eight  days,  and 
the   insect    passes   through   five    molts,  growing  gradually,  and 


a  & 

Fig.  211. — Stiretrus  anchorago.     (After  ChittenJcn.  I 

changing  in  color  from  yellowish-red  to  brownish-yellow.  There 
are  three  generations  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  and  the  insect 
hibernates  in  the  adult  condition  under  the  rough  bark  of  trees, 
and  in  similar  protected  situations.  When  young  they  feed  upon 
very  small  insects  and  their  eggs,  but  when  full-grown  will  at- 
tack any  iijsect  however  large,  even  full-grown  cutworms  and 
the  larvae  of  the  Gypsy  moth. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Kirkland  was  the  first  observer  to  work  out  the 
complete  life  history,  and  from  his  full  account  as  published  in 
the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture  on  the 
Gypsy  moth  (1896)  these  facts  have  been  drawn. 


315 


THE  TRUE  LICE 

(Suborder  Anoplura.) 

The  true  lice  are  generally  referred  to  in  the  books  as  the 
suborder  Parasita.  They  are  all  wingless,  degraded  creatures, 
possessing  to  a  marked  degree  the  degradational  characteristics 
which  result  from  a  parasitic  form  of  life.  They  have  a  thin  skin 
the  feet  are  armed  with  a  single  long  claw,  and  the  mouth-parts 
consist  of  a  short  tube  furnished  with  hooks,  from  which  may 
be  protruded  a  delicate  sucking  tube.  They  are  not  numerous 
in  species  and  are  all  parasitic  on  warm-blooded  animals.  The 
lice  which  are  so  commonly  found  on  birds  belong  to  a  different 
group  and  are  structurally  quite  different  from  Ano- 
plura. Six  genera  and  about  forty  species  of 
Anoplura  are  known.  They  are  found  upon  many 
mammalia,  even  upon  those  which  live  in  the  water. 
A  curious  genus,  for  example,  is  found  upon  seals. 
The  lice  of  domestic  animals  and  those  which  are 
found  upon  uncleanly  individuals  of  the  human  race 
are  well  known.  Three  species  are  found  upon 
human  beings  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and 
Fig.  212.— Fed-  are  more  or  less  specifically  attached  to  this  host. 

iculus  capitis.     _,  ,.,.  ^  .  .    .,.        .  , 

The  conditions  of  modern  civilization,  however,  are 
gradually  causing  these  insects  to  become  rare,  except  in  the 
lowest  quarters.  Fortunately  it  would  no  longer  be  appropriate, 
or  even  possible,  in  the  dawn  of  the  twentieth  century,  for  a  poet 
of  distinction  to  write  lines  comparable  to  those  which  Robert 
Burns  once  composed  in  the  Scottish  church. 

The  eggs  of  most  species  are  attached  to  the  hairs  of  the  host 
animal,  and  the  young  lice,  after  hatching,  begin  immediately  to 
attack  the  skin.  The  rate  of  growth  is  not  recorded,  and  the 
embryological  and  morphological  development  of  the  group  is 
not  well  known.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  some  enthusiastic 
student,  who  can  overcome  the  natural  distaste  for  these  dis- 
316 


The  True  Lice 

agreeable  parasites,  to  do  some  good  original  work.  The  old 
Dutch  naturalist,  Leeuwenhoek,  once  started  an  experimental  in- 
vestigation of  Pediculus  vestimenti,  using  his  own  person  as  the 
breeding  ground,  but,  beyond  the  conclusion  that  the  species  is 
very  prolific,  he  reached  no  results  of  particular  value.  Mercurial 
ointment  is  a  sovereign  remedy  for  the  species  which  attack 
human  beings,  while  different  oily  mixtures  are  used  with  success 
on  domestic  animals. 


THRIPS 


(Order  Pliysopoda.) 

The  very  minute  insects  l<nown  as  "thrips"  belong  to  this 
order,  which  is  a  very  well  differentiated  group  and  has  apparently 
no  very  close  relatives  among  the  insects.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
in  this  country  the  name  thrips  has  been  applied  largely  by  vine- 
growers  to  some  of  the  little  leaf-hoppers  of  the  family  Jassidse 
(q.  v.),  but  the  name  was  long  preoccupied,  both  popularly  and 
scientifically,  by  the  physopod  insects,  v/hich,  by  the  way,  are 
also  sometimes  called  Thysanoptera. 
They  are  very  minute,  slender  in- 
sects, with  four  wings  which  are 
also  very  slender  and  very  short, 
perfectly  transparent  and  practically 
without  veins.  They  are  fringed, 
however,  with  long  delicate  hairs 
and  lie  along  the  back  of  the  abdo- 
men when  at  rest.  The  metamor- 
phosis is  incomplete  and  the  mouth- 
parts  are  of  very  curious  shape,  but 
probably  function  in  sucking.  They 
are  really  intermediate  between  true 
biting  and  true  sucking  mouth- 
parts.  A  striking  peculiarity  of  the  mouth-parts  is  that  they  fre- 
quently differ  on  the  two  sides.  In  other  words,  they  are 
assymetrical.  Although  the  metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  what 
may  be  called  the  pupa  is  not  active.  The  larvae,  however,  are 
not  in  the  least  worm-like  and  resemble  the  adults,  except  for 
the  lack  of  wings.  The  feet  are  curiously  constructed  and  have 
a  little  bladder-like  vesicle  at  the  tip,  from  which  fact  the  name 
of  the  order  was  derived. 

The  thrips  are  found  in  the  greatest  numbers  in  the  flowers 
of  flowering  plants  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  do 
3'8 


Fig.  213. — Thrips  tritiea. 


Thrips 

considerable  damage  by  injury  to  the  essential  organs  of  flowers. 
Although  the  statement  has  been  made  that  they  sometimes  feed 
upon  other  insects,  the  evidence  is  not  good.  An  interesting 
form  in  this  country  lives  in  the  sheaths  of  timothy  grass  and 
sometimes  causes  the  dying  of  the  heads  of  the  grass.  Some- 
times they  are  found  under  bark  and  in  fungi,  and  in  Australia  some 
of  them  form  galls  on  the  leaves  of  acacias.  In  the  United  States, 
however,  they  are  most  abundantly  found  in  flowers  and  fre- 
quently in  the  heads  of  wheat.  In  greenhouses  thrips  are 
especially  noticeable.  Dracasnas  are  said  to  suffer  especially  from 
their  attacks.  They  are  commonly  found  on  chrysanthemums, 
on  hydrangias,  in  orange  blossoms,  and  many  other  flowers. 
Probably  the  most  injurious  species  in  this  country,  however,  is 
the  so-called  onion  thrips  which  causes  the  disease  known  as  the 
white  blast  of  onions.  The  same  species  is  found  on  leaves  of 
cabbage  and  cauliflower,  squash,  turnips,  nasturtiums,  and  many 
other  plants.  It  is  also  found  in  Europe  where  it  occurs  on 
tobacco  as  well  as  upon  garden  plants.  It  is  known  as  Thrips 
tabaci  Lind. 

It  does  not  seem  to  be  generally  known  that  parthenogensis 
has  been  found  to  occur  with  thrips.  Less  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  species  are  known,  but  almost  no  one  has  taken  the  trouble 
to  collect  these  little  creatures  in  out-of-the-way  places,  and  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  order  will  be  found  to  be  quite 
numerous  in  species. 


319 


GRASSHOPPERS,    KATYDIDS, 
CRICKETS,    ETC. 

(Order  Ortlioptera.) 

This  is  a  large  and  important  group  of  insects  which  com- 
prises those  forms  which  are  i^nown  as  the  straight-winged 
insects  and  includes  the  grasshoppers,  or  true  locusts,  the  long- 
horned  grasshoppers  (including  the  katydids),  the  crickets,  cock- 
roaches, walking  sticks  and  leaf  insects,  and  the  praying  mantids 
or  rearhorses.  In  all  these  insects  the  mouth-parts  are  fitted  for 
biting  and  the  metamorphoses  are  incomplete,  the  young  when 
hatching  from  the  eggs  resembling  the  adult  except  for  the  lack 
of  wings.  The  eggs  are  comparatively  few  in  number  and  are 
laid  in  specialized  egg  cases.  The  fore  wings  are  somewhat 
thickened  and  rather  tough  and  horny  as  a  rule,  though  not  so 
much  so  as  the  elytra  of  beetles  and  at  rest  lie  closed  on  the  back 
of  the  insect  so  as  to  protect  it  and  the  hind  wings.  They  are 
called  tegmina.  The  hind  wings  are  much  more  delicate  and 
are  the  important  ones  in  flight.  They  are  furnished  with 
radiating  veins  somewhat  like  the  sticks  of  a  fan  and  have  short 
cross-veins  forming  a  sort  of  network.  In  repose  they  fold  like 
a  fan  and  are  more  or  less  covered  by  the  fore  wings.  While  the 
order  is  not  such  an  extensive  one  in  number  of  species,  it  is  one 
of  very  great  economic  importance,  largely  through  the  ravages 
which  the  migratory  locusts,  or  short-horned  grasshoppers,  make 
upon  agricultural  crops  in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  the 
numbers  in  which  not  only  these  insects  but  certain  other  forms 
occur,  while  their  comparatively  large  size  and  frequently  con- 
spicuous appearance,  make  the  group  a  noted  one. 

As  to  size,  the  Orthoptera  probably  include  the  largest  of 
living  insects  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  tropical  countries. 
Even  in  this  country,  however,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  insect 
exceeds  in  actual  bulk  the  large  lubber  grasshoppers  of  our  South- 


Grasshoppers,   Katydids,  Crickets,  etc. 

eastern  and  Southwestern  States.  It  is  estimated  that  probably 
ten  thousand  species  of  Orthoptera  exist  in  the  world,  but  this 
estimate  is  probably  a  small  one,  since,  as  in  the  other  groups, 
the  smaller  and  more  inconspicuous  species  have  not  been  col- 
lected in  out-of-the-way  places.  The  average  traveller  who  picks 
up  specimens,  and  even  the  average  collector,  when  he  goes  to 
some  rarely  visited  corner  of  the  world,  will  always  collect  the 
large  and  conspicuous  things  and  neglect  the  smaller  and  more 
insignificant  specimens.  From  this  habit,  it  results  that  in  the 
large  museums,  like  the  British  Museum,  the  Berlin  Museum 
and  the  Vienna  Museum,  and  our  own  National  Museum,  large, 
exotic  forms  from  most  portions  of  the  world  are  well  represented, 
but  there  are  comparatively  few  of  the  little  dull-colored  ones. 

The  order  Orthoptera  affords  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  stu- 
dent of  the  phenomena  of  protective  and  aggressive  resemblances. 
The  fiimily  Phasmidae  includes  those  remarkable  creatures  which 
are  so  much  like  twigs  and  leaves  that  they  have  been  called 
walking  sticks  and  leaf  insects.  It  also  includes  the  great  group 
of  praying  mantids  which  feed  upon  other  insects  and  which, 
though  slow  movers,  are  enabled  to  capture  their  prey  by  means 
of  their  perfect  disguise  which,  in  temperate  regions,  makes  them 
resemble  twigs  and  in  tropical  regions  brings  about  an  extraor- 
dinary resemblance  to  flowering  vegetation,  some  of  them 
being  most  highly  colored,  as  the  flower  mantids,  which  resem- 
bles the  most  conspicuous  orchids. 

Another  fact  which  renders  this  group  of  especial  interest  is 
that  many  of  them  are  so  musical.  One  often  hears  of  the 
"song  "  of  the  katydid,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  these  insects  are 
not  vocalists  but  instrumentalists.  Portions  of  the  body  are  so 
modified  as  to  produce  musical  sounds  by  the  rubbing  of  one 
part  upon  another.  In  the  crickets  it  is  the  rubbing  of  the  upper 
wings  upon  the  hind  wings,  the  membrane  being  veined  in  such 
a  way  as  to  produce  a  chirping  sound.  In  some  of  the  grass- 
hoppers the  sound  is  brought  about  by  the  rubbing  of  the  hind 
thighs  against  the  edge  of  the  fore-wings,  or  "  tegmina. "  These 
musical  powers  are  confined  to  the  male  sex  and  the  tunes  which 
they  play  are,  while  songs  without  words,  always  love  songs. 

Many  of  the  Orthoptera  are  great  jumpers,  their  hind  thighs 
being  thickened  so  as  to  enable  them  to  make  great  leaps.  The 
common  name  grasshopper  is  based  upon  their  facility  in  this 

321 


Grasshoppers,  Katydids,  Crickets,  etc. 

direction.  This  reminds  me  of  tlie  little  girl,  who,  being  told 
that  the  beetles  were  Coleoptera  and  that  the  butterflies  were 
Lepidoptera,  remarked  that  the  grasshoppers  must  be  the 
"  Grasshoptera."  Many  of  the  Orthoptera  fly  well  and  strongly. 
The  migratory  grasshoppers  frequently  fly  for  hundreds  of  miles 
with  daily  rests  for  food,  sometimes  in  such  enormous  swarms 
as  to  darken  the  face  of  the  sun. 


TABLE  OF   FAMILIES 

Hind  thighs  stouter,  or  longer,  or  both,  than  the  other  thighs; 
head  vertical;  ovipositor  generally  extruded;  generally 
singers  or  chirpers  (stridulators) i 

Hind  thighs  like  the  other  thighs  ;  head  usually  bent  under ; 
ovipositor  concealed  ;  mute 3 

1 — Antennse  much  longer  than  the  body,  delicately  tapering; 
sound-producing  organs  at  the  inner  base  of  the  fore 
wings  (tegmina) ;  ovipositor  usually  prolonged  into  a 
blade  or  needle 2 

Antennae  much  shorter  than  the  body,  not  delicately  tapering; 
sound-producing  organs  on  the  hind  thighs  and  outer 
edge  of  the  fore  wings;  ovipositor  composed  of  a  double 
pair  of  short  plates  which  diverge  at  tip .  Family  Acridiida' 

2 — Feet  (tarsi)  four-jointed,  nearly  similar  in  structure  on  all  legs; 
ovipositor  (unless,  as  rarely,  concealed)  forming  a  strongly 
compressed,  generally  sword-shaped  blade,  valves  not 
expanded  at  tip Family  Locustidiv 

Tarsi  three-jointed,  those  of  the  fore  or  hind  legs  differing 
from  the  others  in  structure;  ovipositor  (unless,  as  rarely, 
concealed)  forming  a  nearly  cylindrical,  straight,  or 
occasionally  upcurved  needle;  valves  expanded  at  tip. 
Family  Gryllida- 

3 — Body  oval,  flattened;  head  nearly  horizontal;  rapid  runners. 
Family  BlatlidLV 

Body  long,  narrow;  head  free;  slow  movers 4 

4 — Head  oblique,  generally  three-cornered;  front  legs  fitted  for 
grasping Family  Mantidce 

Head  nearly  horizontal,  generally  four-cornered;  front  legs 
like  the  other  legs Family  Phasmidce 


322 


THE  WALKING  STICKS 

(Fajuily  Phasmidce.) 

The  insects  of  this  family  present  some  of  the  most  striking 
forms  known  among  the  Hexupoda.  They  consist  of  the  so-called 
"walking  sticks."  This  name  is  given  to  them  from  the  remark- 
able development  of  protective  resemblance  which  has  brought 
all  of  the  species  to  a  close  imitation  of  the  twigs  of  different 
plants.  The  family  reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  trop- 
ics, but  one  species  is  common  in  the  Northern  States.  The  fomily 
constitutes  the  section  of  Orthopterous  insects  known  to  the  old 
naturalists  as  Gressoria  or  walkers,  as  contrasted  with  the  runners, 
jumpers,  and  graspers  (Cursoria,  Saltatoria  and  Raptoria).  The 
body  is  long  and  slender,  the  head  is  exserted,  the  legs  are  long 
and  slender  and  generally  similar.  They  generally  have  no  wings 
although  some  of  the  tropical  species  have  short  or  long  wings. 
The  eggs  have  a  very  curious  structure  and  frequently  resemble 
seeds  in  appearance.  They  possess  the  power  of  reproducing  lost 
limbs,  the  new  limb  being  weaker  than  the  old  one  and  generally 
curved.  Certain  of  the  tropical  forms  in  this  family  are  curiously 
modified  so  as  to  resemble  leaves  instead  of  twigs.  Leaf  insects 
in  the  tropics  frequently  bear  so  close  a  resemblance  to  vegetation 
as  to  deceive  a  keen  observer. 


Life  History  of  a  common  Walking  Stick 

(DiapItcroiHcra  fcmorata  Say.^ 

This  is  the  common  "  walking  stick  "  of  the  northern  United 
States  and  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  It 
has  been  given  the  popular  name  of  the  "  thick-thighed  walking 
stick  "  owing  to  the  fsict  that  the  femora  of  the  middle  legs  are 
somewhat  swollen.  The  eggs,  of  which  each  female  lays  about 
one  hundred,  are  a  little  less  than  3  mm.  long,  oval  in  shape, 


The  Walking  Sticks 


Fig.  214. — Diapheromera  femorata. 
(After  Riley.) 


The  Walking  Sticks 

slightly  compressed  at  the  sides,  and  of  a  polished  black  color 
with  a  whitish  stripe  on  one  side.  They  resemble  the  small  plump 
seeds  of  some  leguminous  plant.  They  are  not  laid  in  clusters  or 
fastened  to  the  plant  but  are  dropped  loosely  on  the  ground 
where  they  remain  through  the  winter  and  hatch  the  following 
May.  Some  of  them  are  retarded  in  their  hatching  and  young 
walking  sticks  maybe  found  throughout  the  summer.  In  hatch- 
ing the  top  of  the  egg  lifts  up  like  the  lid  of  a  vessel.  The  young 
when  first  hatched  are  4. 5  mm.  long,  and  of  a  uniform  pale  yellow- 
ish-green color.  They  live,  as  a  rule,  near  the  ground  and  drop 
readily  when  disturbed.  They  molt  but  twice,  retaining  the  same 
color  until  maturity,  and  develop  rapidly,  averaging,  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  about  six  weeks  from  birth  to  maturity. 
When  adult  the  green  color  becomes  gray  and  brown.  This 
change  in  color  is  protective  since  in  the  early  summer  while 
vegetation  is  green,  the  insects  are  also  green ;  when  the  foliage 
turns  in  the  autumn  they  change  color  to  correspond  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  when  the  foliage  is  stripped  they  closely  resemble  the 
twigs  upon  which  they  rest.  The  front  legs  of  the  insect  are 
stretched  out  straight  in  front  so  as  to  increase  the  twig-like 
appearance.  The  males  are  smaller  than  the  females  and 
frequently  retain  the  green  color  in  the  mature  condition,  follow- 
ing the  rule  which  holds  more  or  less  throughout  nature,  that  the 
male  sex  is  not  so  well  protected  as  the  female,  since  upon  the 
latter  depends  the  all-important  function  of  reproduction.  There 
is  but  one  generation  annually  and,  as  before  stated,  the  insect 
hibernates  in  the  egg  state  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In 
spite  of  the  protection  afforded  by  form  and  color  the  insect 
seldom  becomes  sufficiently  abundant  as  to  be  ranked  as  injurious 
although  it  feeds  voraciously  upon  the  leaves  of  plants  during  all 
stages  of  growth  after  hatching.  In  the  few  instances  where  it 
has  become  sufficiently  abundant  to  do  noticeable  damage  it  has 
been  easy  to  reduce  its  numbers  to  a  minimum  by  burning  over 
the  leaves  on  the  ground  during  the  winter  time,  thus  destroying 
the  hibernating  eggs.  In  1898  this  insect  appeared  in  extraor- 
dinary numbers  in  a  black-walnut  forest  in  western  New  York, 
so  that  in  the  autumn  the  dropping  of  the  eggs  on  the  leaf-covered 
earth  sounded  like  a  heavy  shower  of  rain. 


325 


THE  REARHORSES,  OR  PRAYING 
MANT/DS 

(Family  MantidcB.) 

The  insects  of  this  family  formed  the  old  Orthopterous  group, 
known  as  Raptoria,  or  graspers.  They  are  predatory  insects, 
and  are  characterized  by  having  a  long,  slender  prothorax,  with 
the  first  pair  of  legs  fitted  for  grasping  their  prey.  They  are  like 
the  Phasmidse,  much  more  abundant  in  tropical  regions  than 
elsewhere,  and,  while  many  forms,  by  their  shape  and  color, 
exhibit  striking  instances  of  protective  resemblance,  in  others  are 
seen  in  its  highest  development  the  phenomenon  of  aggressive 


Fig.  215. — Stagmomantis  Carolina.     (After  Glover.) 


resemblance.  The  so-called  flower  mantids  in  tropical  countries 
closely  resemble  the  flowers  of  certain  plants,  especially  brilliant 
orchids,  and  in  these  flowers  they  lurk  awaiting  the  visits  of 
insects,  which  they  capture.     They  have  various  popular  names, 

326 


me  Rearhorses  or  Praying  Mantids 

being  known  in  England  as  "sootli-sayers,"  or  "praying 
insects,"  from  the  attitude  which  they  assume  when  at  rest  or 
when  waiting  to  grasp  another  insect.  The  knees  are  bent,  and 
the  front  legs  are  held  as  though  supporting  a  prayer-book.  in 
our  Southern  States  they  are  known  as  "  mule-killers,"  from  the 
curious  superstition  that  the  brownish  liquor  which  they  exude 
from  the  mouth  is  fatal  to  mules.  They  are  more  commonly 
known,  however,  in  the  south,  as  "  rearhorses,"  from  the  rearing 
attitude  assumed  when  about  to  grasp  another  insect.  The  eggs 
of  the  Mantidas  are  laid  in  a  curiously-formed  egg  case  which  is 
secreted  by  the  female.  They  capture  their  prey  by  stealth, 
crawling  upon  them  so  slowly  that  the  motion  is  hardly  observ- 
able, but  when  within  reaching  distance  the  front  legs  are  thrown 
out  with  incredible  rapidity.  They  are  cannibalistic  in  a  high 
degree,  and  the  female  often,  if  not  usually,  devours  the  male 
while  in  the  act  of  conjugation. 

Like  so  many  other  predatory  insects,  they  have  the  most 
voracious  appetites.  Colic  and  bilious  headaches  seem  unknown 
to  them.  Slingerland  has  brought  together  some  interesting 
instances  of  this  voracity  in  his  account  of  the  recent  accidental 
introduction  and  establishment  of  the  European  Mantis  religiosa 
in  New  York  State.  His  correspondent,  Mr.  Atwood,  writes  : 
"One  Sunday  a  green  mantis  ate  three  grasshoppers,  each  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  long,  a  daddy-long-legs,  and  then  tackled 
another  mantis,  and  I  was  obliged  to  interfere  between  them." 
It  is  probable  that  this  common  European  insect  was  introduced 
into  northern  New  York  in  the  egg  stage  on  nursery  stock. 
Another  foreign  mantid  has  also  recently  become  acclimatized  in 
this  country.  This  is  Tenodera  sinensis  Sa.\is,s.,  o^ ]a^^x\.  This 
large  and  striking  form  made  its  appearance  about  Philadelphia 
in  1896,  and  in  1900  was  quite  numerous. 


Life  History  of  a  Rearhorse 

( Stagmomantis  Carolina.) 

This  species,  which   is   common   throughout  the  southejn 
United    States,  extends   as   far  north  as  New  Jersey.     It  is  an 
austral  form,  but  does  not  reach  the  northern  limits  of  the  so- 
called  upper  austral  life  zone.     The  eggs  are  laid  in  tough  cases 
327 


The  Rearhorses  or  Praying  Mantid 


about  an  inch  long  which  are  attached  to  the  twigs  of  trees. 
The  case  is  tough  and  horny,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  in  parallel 
rows,  perhaps  forty  in  a  row,  issuing 
from  a  common  longitudinal  middle  line. 
All  of  the  eggs  stand  on  end  and  are 
inclined  somewhat  toward  the  central 
channel.  A  cluster  of  eggs  has  a  braided 
appearance,  but  consists  simply  of  a  con- 
tinuous ribbon  of  mucous  folded  in  close 
fluting  and  having  an  egg  deposited  in 
the  bight  or  angle  of  each  fold.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  simultaneously  with 
the  deposition  of  this  ribbon  by  the 
mother  insect,  and  the  whole  mass  is  at 
first  soft  and  flexible,  but  rapidly  hardens 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  newly- 
hatched  insect  is  light  yellowish-brown, 
but  after  the  second  molt  many  of  them 
become  green.  The  number  of  molts 
has  not  been  recorded,  but  there  are  cer- 
tainly more  than  three.  At  full  growth, 
however,  most  of  the  females  are  green, 
while  the  males  become  brown  or  gray. 
There  is  but  one  generation  each  year. 
The  young  hatch  in  the  early  summer, 
but  complete  their  growth  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  season,  and  the  insect  hiber- 
nates in  the  egg  stage.  The  eggs  are 
frequently  parasitized  by  a  very  peculiar  chalcis  fly,  Podagrion 
viautis,  which  penetrates  the  tough  egg  mass  with  its  long  ovi- 
positor, and  whose  larvae  feed  upon  the  eggs.  Thus  egg  masses 
taken  by  the  observer  in  the  winter  and  kept  for  the  hatching  of 
the  young  will  frequently  in  the  spring  give  out  these  parasites 
instead  of  the  young  mantids. 


Fig.  216. — Stagmomantis 

Carolina :  egg  cases. 

(After  Riley.) 


328 


,-■)    nHK5}OH-1  'A 


Plate  XXXIV. 
LONG-HORNED   AND   SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS 

FIG.  FIG. 

1.  Platyphyllum  concavum  5.  Paroxya  florida 

2.  Bacillus  carinatus  6.   Dactylotum  pictum 

9.  Boopedon  nubilum  7.  Anisomorpha  buprestoides 

4.  Melanoplus  femoratus  8.  Bradynotus  obesa 


y  Plate  XXXIV. 


COCKROACHES 

(Family  Blattida\) 


The  insects  of  this  family,  known  commonly  as  cockroaches, 
form  the  old  group  Cursoria,  or  runners.  The  body  as  a  rule  is 
oval  and  flat,  all  the  legs  being  similar  in  form.  The  head  is  de- 
flexed  or  bent  under  and  generally  concealed  by  the  prothorax. 
The  hind  wings  are 
slightly  folded.  The 
insects  of  this  group 
are  very  abundant  in 
the  tropics  but  several 
species  have  become 
domesticated  and  are 
very  abundant  in  the 
colder  parts  of  the 
world.  The  cock- 
roach type  is  a  very 
persistent  one,  and  in- 
sects of  this  family 
existed  in  great  num- 
bers in  geologic 
periods  prior  to  the 
tertiary.  They  are 
found  in  considerable 
number  in  carbonif- 
erous rocks  and  one 
form  has  been  found 
in  Silurian  sandstone. 

The  eggs  are  laid 
in  egg  cases  as  with 

the  Mantidas  but  the  subsequent  life  history  is  little  known,     It  is 

supposed   that   they   grow   very   slowly.        Most   of  them   are 

nocturnal   in   their  habits.      They   feed   on   a  great  variety  of 

329 


Fig.  217. — Periplaneta  americana. 
( Redrawn  from  Marlatt.) 


Cockroaches 

substances,  especially  those  forms  which  inhabit  houses,  but  it 
is  supposed  that  their  natural  food  is  dead  animal  matter.  Dr. 
Sharp  estimates  that  there  are  five  thousand  species  in  existence. 
The  species  found  in  American  houses  are  the  American  cock- 
roach ( Periplaneta  americaua),  the  German  cockroach  or  croton 
bug  ( Ectobia  germanica),  X\\e  European  cockroach  or  "black 
beetle"  as  it  is  known  in  England  (Periplaneta  orientalis)  and  the 
Australian  cockroach  (Periplaneta  australasia').  The  egg  cases 
of  the  German  cockroach  is  shown  in  accompanying  illustrations. 
The  female  carries  the  egg  case  with  her  until  she  finds  a 
proper  place  to  leave  it  or  until  the  eggs  are  nearly  ready  to  hatch. 
The  young  roaches  grow  slowly  and  pass  through  a  variable 


Fig.  218. — Ectobia  germanica.     ( Redrawn  from  Insect  Life.) 

number  of  molts,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  The  time  re- 
quired for  the  development  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  may  be  pro- 
longed by  absence  of  food  or  low  temperature.  Four  or  five 
years  have  been  said  to  have  been  occupied  in  this  growth. 
The  German  cockroach  has  been  shown  to  reach  full-growth  in 
from  four  and  one-half  to  six  months  and  the  American  cockroach 
has  been  raised  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  in  about  twelve  months. 
No  sufficiently  careful  observations  on  the  life  history  of  the 
common  species  appear  to  have  been  made,  hence  the  "Typical 
Life  History  "  must  be  omitted  with  the  insects  of  this  family. 
The  anatomy  of  Periplaneta  orientalis  has  been  carefully  studied 
by  Miall  and  Denny.*  and  the  American  household  cockroaches 
have  been  treated  at  some  length  by  Marlatt.** 

*The  Anatomy  of  the  Cockroach. 

**  Bull.  4,  N.  S.,  Div.  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  pp.  84-95. 
330 


Cockroaches 

The  cockroaches  which  have  just  been  mentioned  are  practi- 
cally domesticated  animals  in  so  far  as  they  have  accommodated 
themselves  to  the  environments  of  civilization.  They  appear  to 
eat  almost  everything,  whether  animal  or  vegetable  in  its  nature, 
and  they  are  household  pests  of  the  highest"  rank.  They  are  also 
all  of  them  cosmopolitan,  or  practically  so,  and  have  been  carried 
in  ships  to  almost  all  parts  of  the  world.  Our  native  cockroaches 
are,  most  of  them,  out-door  feeders  and  are  exceptionally  cleanly 
insects.  In  fact,  any  one  of  the  domestic  cockroaches,  if 
watched,  will  be  seen  constantly  to  make  efforts  to  beautify  its 
person,  licking  its  legs  and  its  antennie  in  much  the  same  manner 
in  which  a  cat  washes  its  paws.  A  curious  observation  which 
the  writer  once  made  indicates  that  it  is  possible  for  cockroaches 
to  acquire  the  tobacco  habit.  A  croton  bug  of  the  usual  inquisi- 
tive turn  of  mind  inhabited  my  office 
desk,  and  as  soon  as  I  laid  down  my 
cigar  upon  the  edge  of  the  drawer  the 
little  fellow  invariably  came  out  of  his 
hiding  place  and  worked  vigorously  at 
the  moist  end.  At  first  he  was  after  the 
moisture  but  later  the  tobacco  taste  grew 
and  he  became  as  much  addicted  to  the 
habit  as  the  most  inveterate  human  to- 
bacco user.  It  maybe  worth  mentioning 
that  it  seemed  to  have  no  appreciable 
effect  on  its  health.  J^'g-  -19-Peripianeta 

onentahs. 

Cockroaches  are  fond  of  darkness. 
They  roam  about  houses  at  night,  and  new  houses  become 
stocked  with  roaches  through  migrations  at  night  time  from 
over-supplied  adjoining  establishments.  On  a  dark  day  in  Wash- 
ington 1  once  saw  a  migrating  army  of  cockroaches,  incalculable 
in  number,  crossing  the  street  from  a  dirty  restaurant  toward 
buildings  opposite.  The  majority  of  the  individuals  composing 
the  army  were  females  carrying  egg  cases,  and  the  observation 
thus  became  one  of  psychological  interest  since  the  migratory 
instinct  seemed  to  have  been  developed  by  an  appreciation  of  the 
fact  that  while  the  restaurant  might  support  the  mothers  there 
would  not  be  food  enough  for  the  coming  children. 


331 


THE  SHORT- HORN  ED  GRASSHOPPERS 
OR   TRUE  LOCUSTS 

(Family  Acridiidce.) 

The  insects  of  this  family  are  everywhere  abundant  both  in 
number  of  species  and  individuals.  They  comprise  some  of  the 
most  destructive  insects  known  and  the  migratory  species  have 
devastated  the  crops  of  many  countries,  more  especially  Russia, 
portions  of  South    Europe,    Algeria,    India,    Cape   Colony,   the 


Fig.  220. — Melanoplus  devastator.     (After  Riley.) 

Argentine  Republic  and  in  former  years  some  of  the  western 
United  States.  In  the  insects  of  this  family  the  antennae  are  short, 
much  shorter  than  the  body,  the  ovipositor  of  the  female  is  short 


Fig.  221. — Schistocerca  americana.     (After  Riley.) 

and  composed  of  four  separate  plates  and  the  tarsi  are  three- 
jointed.  The  hind  legs  are  the  longest  and  usually  have  stout 
femora,  especially  near  the  base.  Among  the  most  abundant 
and  injurious  species  occurring  in  this  country  are  the  western 

332 


The  Short-Horned  Grasshoppers  or  True  Locusts 

grasshopper  or  migratory  locust  (Melanoplus  spretus),  an  insect 
wiiich  damaged  western  agriculture,  especially  in  the  States  of 
Kansas,  Colorado,  Nebraska  and  Missouri,  in  the  years  1874-1876, 
to  the  extent  of  more  than  $200,000,000,  and  which  was  the  sub- 
ject of  an  investigation  by  a  special  governmental  commission 
lasting  through  several  years;  the  common  red-legged  locust 
(Melanoplus  femtir-rtibritm),  a  species  closely  resembling  the 
foregoing  but  having  shorter  wings;  the  two-striped  locust 
(Melanoplus  bivittatus),  a  widespread  form  which  is  abundant 
almost  every  year;  the  Carolina  locust  ( Dissosteira  Carolina),  the 
common  light-brown  species  seen  so  frequently  along  dusty 
roads;  the  American  locust  (Schistocerca  americana),  more 
abundant  in  our  Southern  States  where  it  occasionally  becomes 


Fig.  222. — Rhomaleum  micropterum.     (After  Glover.) 


very  injurious;  and  the  differential  locust  (Melanoplus  differen- 
lialis),  a  species  which  has  recently  done  great  damage  to  cotton 
plantations  in  Mississippi.  The  lubber  grasshopper  of  Florida 
and  Georgia  is  known  as  Rhomaleum  micropterum.  It  varies  in 
color  from  green  to  black  and  has  very  short  wings.  It  occurs 
frequently  in  enormous  numbers  in  the  rice-fields  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Savannah  River,  and  is  an  extremely  disagreeable  object 
on  which  to  step;  in  fact,  it  reminds  one  of  Thackeray's  famous 
remark  when  he  swallowed  his  first  saddle-rock  oyster.  The 
corresponding  lubber  grasshopper  of  the  Southwest  is  (Brachy^ 
peplus  magnus,  and  is  a  large  greenish  species. 


The  Short-Horned  Grasshoppers  or  True  Locusts 

With  the  short-horned  grasshoppers  we  come  to  the  first  of 
the  Orthoptera  which  are  musical.  Almost  everyone  who  walks 
in  the  fields  knows  the  rattling  or  crackling  sound  produced  by 
certain  grasshoppers  in  their  flight.  It  appears  to  be  under  the 
control  of  the  insect.  It  can  produce  it  or  not,  just  as  it  pleases. 
Some  give  distinct  snapping  sounds,  or  separate,  loud  snaps. 
Still  other  grasshoppers  play  upon  their  instruments  not  during 
flight  but  while  at  rest.      Professor  A.   P.  Morse  tells  how  he 


Fig.  223. — Melanoplus  spretus:  laying  its  eggs.     (After  Riley.) 

watched  some  of  them  (Circotettix  verrucu/afusj  on  Mt. 
Washington  sunning  themselves,  occasionally  elevating  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body  and  rapidly  moving  the  hind  thighs  up 
and  down  against  the  wing  covers,  "producing  a  distinct 
'scritching'  sound  clearly  audible  at  a  distance  of  three  or  four 
feet.  This  act  was  repeated  several  times  at  intervals  of  a  few 
seconds." 


Life  History  of  a  Grasshopper 

( ]\Iclanoplus  atlanis  Riley. ^ 

This  insect,  which  is  known  as  the  lesser  migratory  locust, 
is  a  close  relative  of  the  common  red-legged  locust  and  the 
western  grasshopper.  It  occurs  commonly  throughout  the 
northern  United  States  and  has  for  many  years  made  occasional 
injurious  outbreaks  in  a  restricted  region  in  New  Hampshire 
where  local  conditions  seem  to  favor  its  undue  increase.     The 

3,34 


The  Short-Horned  Grasshoppers  or  True  Locusts 

eggs  are  laid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  an  egg  pod  in 
shape  something  like  a  bent  flask,  the  eggs  in  each  pod  averaging 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  in  number.  Each  female  in  the 
course  of  her  life  usually  deposits  two  of  these  egg  pods  although 
three  and  even  four  have  been  laid  by  the  same  female.  The  in- 
sect passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  state  and  the  young  locust  or 
grasshopper  hatches  in  the  spring.  The  period  between  hatch- 
ing and  maturity  averages  eighty  to  ninety  days  and  the  grass- 
hopper passes  through  four  to  five  molts,  the  young  grasshoppers 
attaining  their  full  wings  only  after  the  last  molt.  In  about  one 
week  after  reaching  full  growth  the  insects  pair  and  soon  com- 
mence ovipositing.  There  is  but  one  annual  generation  in  New 
England,  but  two  in  Missouri.  Egg-laying  commences  late  in 
July  and  some  of  the  earlier  eggs  may  hatch  in  the  autumn  in 
New  England,  showing  a  tendency  towards  a  second  generation. 


THE  LONG-HORNED  GRASSHOPPERS 

(Family  Locnstidce.) 

These  insects,  known  as  the  long-horned  grasshoppers,  or 
green  grasshoppers,  comprise  those  species  having  very  long 
antennre,  longer  than  the  body,  having  tarsi  with  four  joints  in- 
stead of  three,  as  with  the  Acridiidae,  and  possessing  in  the  fe- 
male sex  a  long  saw-shaped  ovipositor  which  is  composed  of 
six  pieces  instead  of  four,  as  with  the  Acridiidae.  They  are 
delicate  insects,  much  more  fragile  than  the  short-horned  grass- 
hoppers, and  are  great  singers.     The  males  are  usually  provided 


Fig.  224. — Orchelimum  vulgare;    and  its  eggs.     (After  Forbes.) 

with  a  musical  apparatus  consisting  of  a  curious  development 
of  the  veins  and  membrane  at  the  base  of  the  wing  cover.  A 
curved  ovipositor  permits  many  forms  to  insert  their  eggs  into 
pithy  plants  or  into  the  earth.  Nearly  all  of  the  species  are  strict 
vegetable  feeders  although  some  of  them  are  said  to  be  carnivo- 


Plate  XXXV. 
MISCELLANEOUS    ORTHOPTERA 

FIG.  FIG. 

1.  Stenopelmatus  fasciatus  5.  Gryllus  abbreviatus 

2.  Microcentrum  laurifolia  6.   Locusta  fuliginosa 

3.  Orchelimum  spinulosum  7.  Stagmomantis  Carolina 

4.  Anabrus  purpurascens 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXXV. 


The  Long-Horned  Grasshoppers 

rous.  The  commoner  forms  have  been  called  the  meadow 
grasshoppers.  They  are  the  long,  slender,  delicate  species  found 
on  grass  and  low-growing  plants.  A  common  representative 
of  this  group  is  OrcheHiniiin  vulgare.  Others  are  known  as  the 
katydids  from  the  resemblance  of  the  male  call  to  the  word 
"  katydid,"  while  others  somewhat  resemble  crickets  and  are 
found  under  stones  and  rubbish  in  the  woods  and  in  caves. 
The  so-called  western  crickets  (Anabrus  pitrptirascens  and  A. 
simplex)  belong  to  this  group,  as  also  do  the  ferocious  looking 
creatures  of  the  genus  Stenopelmattis,  found  in  the  arid  regions 
of  the  West  and  which  are  erroneously  considered  as  poisonous. 
The  long-horned  grasshoppers,  or  green  grasshoppers,  are 
among  the  most  musical  of  our  orthopterous  insects.  Everyone 
knows  the  call  of  the  katydid,  and  everyone  knows  Holmes' 
beautiful  poem  about  this  interesting  creature.  Our  commonest 
katydids  ordinarily  call  "Katy,"  or  say  "She  did,"  rather  than 
"Katydid."  That  is  to  say,  they  rasp  their  fore  wings  twice 
oftener  than  three  times.  "These  two  notes,"  says  Scudder, 
"  are  of  equal  (and  extraordinary)  emphasis,  the  latter  about  one- 
quarter  longer  than  the  former;  or,  if  three  notes  are  given,  the 
first  and  second  are  alike,  and  a  little  shorter  than  the  last.  The 
notes  are  repeated  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  per  minute,  and, 
while  the  interval  between  two  series  of  notes  varies  to  a  certain 
degree,  it  is  seldom  greater  than  two  and  one-third  seconds  or 
less  than  a  second  and  a  quarter."  This  is  Mr.  Scudder's  attempt 
to  reduce  this  note  to  a  scale: 


Fig.  225. — Song  note  of  Cyrtophyllum  concavum.     (After  Scudder.) 

It  is  a  noticeable  thing  with  these  insects  that  the  day  note 
differs  from  the  night  note,  and,  unlike  the  katydids,  one  of  the 
long-horned  grasshoppers,  known  as  Sciuideria  angustifolia,  is 
noisier  by  night  than  by  day.  The  day  tune  is  played  only  in  the 
sunshine,  and  the  night  tune  after  dark  or  in  cloudy  weather. 
Scudder  was  once  watching  one  of  these  little  creatures  in  the 
sunshine.  "  As  a  cloud  passed  over  the  sun  he  suddenly  changed 
his  note  to  one  with  which  1  was  already  familiar  but  without 
knowing  to  what  insect  it  belonged.  At  the  same  time  all  the 
337 


Fig.  226. — Microcentrum  retinervis.     (After  Comstock.J 


The  Long-Horned  Grasshoppers 

individuals  around,  whose  similar  day  song  1  had  heard,  began  to 
respond  with  the  night  cry.  The  cloud  passed  away,  and  the 
original  note  was  resumed  on  all  sides.  The  day  song  is  reduced 
to  scale  by  Scudder  as  follows  : 

terwi  bzrwl  bzrwl 

Fig.  227. — Day  song  of  Scudderia  curvicauda.      (  After  Scudder.) 


tchw      tchw      tcbw      Icbw      tchw      tchw         tchw 


Fig.  22ja. — Night  song  of  same.     (After  Scudder.) 

Typical  Life  History  of  a  Katydid 

( Alicroccntrinn  retincn<is  Say.^ 

This  insect,  commonly  known  as  the  angular-winged  katy- 
did, is  a  common  species  throughout  the  more  southern  portions 
of  the  United  States,  extending  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast.  This  insect  hibernates  in  the  egg  stage.  The 
eggs  are  flattened,  oval,  of  a  slate-brown  color,  about  four  mm., 
in  length,  and  are  laid  in  a  curious  double  overlapping  row  on 
twigs  of  trees  and  in  other  situations.  In  the  south,  where  the 
insect  has  two  generations  annually  they  are  even  laid  on  the 
edges  of  leaves,  in  which  case  one  row  will  be  found  on  one  side 
of  the  leaf  and  the  other  row  on  the  other  side.  They  are  some- 
times also  laid  in  peculiar  situations,  as  on  the  edge  of  a  fence 
board,  and  the  writer  once  received  a  batch  from  a  western  cor- 
respondent which  was  found  on  the  edge  of  a  freshly  laundried 
collar  which  had  laid  for  some  time  in  a  bureau  drawer.  Riley 
records  oviposition  on  the  edge  of  a  piano  cover  and  on  a  long 
piece  of  cord.  The  females  begin  to  oviposit  in  the  early  fall  and 
continue  to  lay  at  intervals  until  killed  by  frost.  The  surface  of 
the  twig  is  first  roughened  by  the  jaws  and  then  the  ovipositor 
is  moved  up  and  the  eggs  are  laid  one  after  another,  the  successive 
ones  being  pushed  for  a  short  distance  under  the  edge  of  the  one 
immediately  preceding,  the  number  varying  from  two  to  thirty 
339 


The  Long-Horned  Grasshoppers 

in  a  bunch.  Each  female  lays  from  loo  to  150  eggs.  In  the 
spring  the  egg  splits  along  its  top  edge  and  the  young  katydid, 
very  pale  in  color,  emerges.  In  Missouri  the  skin  is  cast  five 
times  and  the  perfect  insect  appears  from  July  to  August,  the 
songs  being  most  commonly  heard  in  the  latter  month.  Mr. 
Scudder,  who  has  studied  the  notes  of  crickets  and  grasshoppers 
from  the  musical  standpoint,  states  that  the  day  song  of  the  katy- 
did differs  from  the  night  song.  In  its  northern  range  the  insect 
is  single  brooded  but  in  the  far  southern  States  there  are  two 
generations  annually.  The  eggs  of  the  angular-winged  katydid 
are  stung  by  the  curious  chalcidid  parasite  known  as  Eiipelnms 
mirabilis  Walsh,  called  by  its  describer  the  "back-rolling 
wonder"  from  the  fact  that  the 'abdomen  is  frequently  turned 
backwards  and  upwards  until  it  nearly  reaches  the  head,  the  hind 
legs  being  turned  in  the  same  direction  so  that  the  insect  almost 
forms  a  ball. 


340 


THE  CRICKETS 

(Family  Gijllida.) 


Fig.  228. — Gryllus  assimilis. 
f  Redrawn  from  Mariatt.) 


These  insects,  commonly  known  as  crickets,  have  long 
antenns,  longer  than  the  body,  as  in  the  Locustidas,  but  the  tarsi 
are  three-jointed  and  the  ovipositor,  when  exserted,  is  spear- 
shaped.  The  hind  legs  are  long,  and  the  femora  are  swollen. 
Many  species  are  wingless,  but  with  those  which  have  wings  the 
tegmina,  or  upper  wings,  are  de- 
flexed  on  the  outer  edge  so  that 
they  fit  closely  to  the  sides  of  the 
body.  In  the  male  sex  the  upper 
wings  are  frequently  curiously  mod- 
ified so  as  to  permit  an  even  more 
elaborate  musical  apparatus  than  is 
the  case  with  the  Locustidse.  The 
insects  of  this  family  are  not 
numerous  from  the  point  of  num- 
ber of  species,  and  but  three  distinct  types  are  found  in  the  group. 
These  are  the  true  crickets,  typified  by  the  common  field  cricket; 
the  mole  crickets,  forms  with  very 
short  wings,  which  are  sometimes 
entirely  absent,  and  with  modified 
front  legs,  which  superficially  re- 
semble those  of  a  mole,  and  which 
live  during  their  entire  lives  under- 
ground; and  third,  the  so-called 
tree  crickets,  pale-colored  nocturnal 
forms  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
twigs  of  different  plants,  and  which 
sometimes  are  so  abundant  that  by 
their  egg-laying  alone  they  do  con- 
siderable damage  to  vineyards  and 
to  raspberry  and  blackberry  planta- 

341 


229. — Gryllus   domesticus. 
(After  Mariatt.  J 


The  Crickets 


tions.  The  house  cricket,  or  hearth  cricket,  Grylhis  domesticus, 
of  Europe,  is  not  common  on  this  continent  except  in  Canada, 
but  two  or  three  species  of  field  crickets  are  occasionally  found  in 
houses  in  this  country.     The  common  black  cricket,  found  in 


Fig.  2jo. — Anabi-us  simplex.     (After  Riley.) 

grassy  pasture  lands  or  fields,  lives  in  burrows  under  the  ground, 
issues  sometimes  in  the  day,  but  more  usually  at  night  to  feed, 
and  takes  blades  of  grass  back  into  its  burrow.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  autumn,  usually  in  the  ground,  and  are  hatched  the 
following  summer.  The  mole  crickets  live  always  under  the 
ground  and  feed  upon  the  tender  roots  of  forage  plants,  while  the 
tree  crickets  are,  as  their  name  suggests,  arboreal  in  their  habits. 
The  crickets  are  the  most  musical  of  all  insects.  Even  the 
male  mole  cricket  consoles  himself  by  fiddling,  and  warms  the 
heart  of  his  mate  by  playing  a  tune  which  is  not  cheerful  enough 
for  a  household  ditty,  but,  to  our  ears,  uneducated  in  the  orthop- 
teran  musical  culture,  sounds  more  like  a  lament  of  his  sad 
subterranean  fate.  It  has  been  reduced  to  scale  by  Scudder  as 
follows  : 

gru         gru  gru         grQ  grQ  grtl  gru  gru  grfi  gru 

Fig.  231. — Song  of  tlie  mole  cricket.     (After  Scudder.) 

The  house  cricket,  or  the  cricket  of  the  hearth,  plays  a  more 
cheerful  tune,  or,  at  all  events,  it  is  supposed  to  mean  comfort 
and  a  warm  fireside  and  a  steaming  kettle,  it  is  thus  not  the 
music  but  the  association  of  ideas  which  produces  the  pleasing 
effect.     Cowper  expressed  it  perfectly  when  he  wrote  : 

"  Sounds  inharmonious  in  themselves  and  harsh. 
Yet,  heard  in  scenes  where  peace  forever  reigns. 
And  only  there,  please  highly  for  their  sake." 

The  name  cricket  comes  from  this  sound,  and  is  derived 
from  the  imitative  French  popular  name,   "cricri,"and  similar 
342 


2T?.:J::)0J    3U^T  ;   a3H^0H-Ti^C)H?. 


Plate  XXXVI. 
SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS   OR   TRUE    LOCUSTS 


FIG. 

1.  Gomphicerus  decussata 

2.  Melanoplus  minor 

3.  Melanoplus  atlanis 

4.  Melanoplus  punctatus 

5.  Hesperotettix  viridis 

6.  Circotettix  verruculatus 


FIG. 

7.  Cephalocoema  costylata 

8.  Encoptolophus  sordidus 

9.  Melanoplus  differentialis 

10.  Melanoplus  differentialis 

11.  Hesperotettix  viridis 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plat^  XXXVi. 


The  Crickets 

descriptive  names  are  applied  to  it  in  many  foreign  tongues.  The 
common  field  crickets  (Gryllus  neglect  us,  for  example  j  are  often 
very  musical  at  night.  Scudder  says  that  sometimes  the  notes 
are  produced  as  slowly  as  two  per  second,  but  that  they  may  be 
twice  as  rapid.  The  note  is  a  shrill  one,  and  is  said  to  be 
pitched  at  e  natural,  two  octaves  above  middle  c.  It  is  recorded 
as  follows  : 

crrri  crrri         crrri  crrrl         crrrl 

Fig.  232.— Song  of  the  field  cricket.     (After  Saidder.) 

Perhaps  the  commonest  night  song,  however,  is  that  of  the 
snowy  tree  cricket  (CEcanilms  nivetis  et  al).  The  notes  of  our 
three  or  four  species  of  snowy  tree  crickets  vary  much  in  intensity. 
There  is  a  distinct  relation  between  the  temperature  and  the 
number  of  notes  per  minute.  Professor  Dolbear  has  reduced  this 
to  a  mathematical  formula.     He  says: 

Let  T  =  temperature  in  degrees  Fahrenheit;  N  =  number  of 
chirps  per  minute.  Then  T  =  50 +  ^~''°.  This  would  give  100 
chirps  for  65  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

This  formula  has  been  tested  in  Massachusetts  by  Dr.  Robert 
Edes  and  Mr.  Walter  Faxon,  who  tlnd  that  from  actual  records 
the  temperature  is  about  63  degrees  to  100  chirps,  with  an  error  of 
variation  of  one  degree  or  less  in  four-fifths  of  the  cases.  The 
day  song  is  annotated  by  Mr.  Scudder  as  follows,  and  he  states 
that  it  is  a  nearly  uniform,  equally-sustained  trill  lasting  from  two  or 
three  seconds  to  a  minute  or  two.  The  insect,  however,  "often 
begins  its  note  at  a  different  pitch  from  the  normal  one — fourth/ 
above  middle  c — as  if  it  required  a  little  practice  to  attain  it." 

thrrr    ------     .-------------------- 


------------------      rr  tlirrr    -     -    -     -     - 

b ^ ^ b bTrSTTb" bib b b b b bbb'l  ^ b b b b b 

Fig.  233. — Day  song  of  a  snowy  tree  cricket.     (After  Scudder.) 

The  song  of  Qicanthus  niveus  is  by   far  the   most   famil- 
iar one.      Riley   gave  the  best   description  of  it  when  he  said 
that   it    "is   intermittent,    resembling  a  shrill    're-teat,    re-teat, 
343 


The  Crickets 

re-teat,'  with  a  slight  pause  between  each."  Scudder  reminds  us 
that  Burroughs  has  called  this  noise  a  "  rhythmic  beat  ; "  that 
Thoreau  called  it  "slumbrous  breathing,"  and  that  Hawthorne 
describes  it  as  "audible  stillness,"  and  that  he  says,  "if  moon- 
light could  be  heard  it  would  sound  like  that."  Fitch  says  that 
the  noise  made  by  these  crickets  is  an  invitation  to  "treat — treat 
— treat. 

Harrington  has  watched  one  of  these  concerts  closely  and 
says,  "  An  interesting  feature  of  its  concerts  is  one  of  which  I 
have  not  been  able  to  find  any  mention  in  books  accessible. 
While  the  male  is  energetically  shuffling  together  his  wings, 
raised  almost  vertically,  the  female  may  be  seen  standing  just 
behind  him,  and  with  her  head  applied  to  the  base  of  the  wings 
evidently  eager  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  every  note  produced." 


tr—— 


TTS  b!  bl  ^  ^  b '5  b  b  t^  l^  b'bl"?!  b  bTTb  b 


&•' 


etc.  de  uovo. 


b  b  b  b  b  b  b  bib  b  b  b    'b  b  b 

Fig.  234. — Night  song  of  the  snowy  tree  cricket.     (After  Scudder.) 

Even  the  curious  cave  crickets  of  the  genus  Conocephalus 
have  a  song.  But  they  sing  only  by  night  and  in  cloudy 
weather.  C  ensiger  makes  five  notes  per  second  and  these 
have  been  recorded  by  Scudder  as  follows : 

brw  cbwj   chwl  chwi  chwi  chwi  chwi  chwi  chwi    chwl        chwl 

^         I         I         l\l         I         I         I         I         't^\l 
chwT  chwi    chwi   chwi  chwi  chwi   chwi     chwi     chwi     chwi     chwi 


I.    l    I    ^    '.  I  b    I    1/    ^    '.    ^  H 

Fig.  235. — Song  of  the  cave  cricket  Conocephalus  ensign.     (After  Scudder.) 

Why  has  no  one  ever  worked  up  a  full  life  history,  with  all 
of  its  interesting  details,  of  one  of  our  commonest  crickets  ? 
It  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  some  good  observer  will  answer 
this  conundrum  with  the  following  words:  "  Because  it  has  been 
left  for  me  to  do,  and  1  purpose  to  do  it  as  soon  as  possible." 

344 


EARWIGS 

(Order  Enplexoptcra.) 

These  are  the  insects  which  are  properly  known  by  the  ver- 
nacular name,  earwigs.  They  are  so  distinct  in  structure  from 
all  other  insects  that  they  are  now  placed  in  an  order  by  them- 
selves, although  formerly  they  were  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  Orthoptera.  They  apparently  have  four  wings,  but  the  first 
pair  are  horny  and  small  and  resemble  somewhat  the  elytra  of 
beetles.  The  second  pair  are  very  curiously  folded,  but  when 
expanded  are  almost  circular  in  shape  and  pos- 
sess veins  which  radiate  from  a  common  center. 
The  mouth-parts  are  for  biting  and  the  metamor- 
phoses are  incomplete.  The  most  peculiar 
structure  of  the  earwigs,  however,  is  the  pair  of 
forceps  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  These  for- 
ceps are  sometimes  very  large  and  when  opened 
give  the  insect  a  somewhat  terrifying  appearance. 
They  are  not  used,  however,  as  weapons  of 
offense  although  with  some  of  the  earwigs  which 
have  wings  (by  no  means  all  of  them  are  winged) 
one  of  the  forceps  is  used  to  assist  in  folding  the 
hind  wing,  with  the  wingless  species  no  use  for  Fig-  236— Forfi- 
these  forceps  has  been  discovered.  Why  they  '^u^s^Dept. a^) 
should  have  been  evolved  is  a  mystery.  The 
name  earwig  is  derived  from  the  general  idea  amongst  unedu- 
cated people  that  these  insects  seek  to  enter  the  ears  of  human 
beings,  causing  injury  to  the  sense  of  hearing.  This  idea  is  a 
very  old  one  and,  of  course,  is  totally  unfounded,  for  the  earwigs 
are  perfectly  harmless.  The  antiquity  of  this  superstition  and 
the  widespread  belief  in  it  are  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  these 
insects  have  practically  the  same  name  in  many  languages.  The 
Dutch,  German,  Swedish,  Danish,  French,  Portugese  and  Spanish 
all  give  it  a  name  with  practically  this  same  meaning.     Our  own 

34S 


Earwigs 

use  of  it  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  earwicga.  In  this  country 
especially  in  the  South  the  same  name  is  applied  to  the  common 
house  centipede.  An  early  advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  similia 
similibus  curantur  anticipated  Hahneman  by  prescribing  earwigs, 
dried,  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  urine  of  a  hare,  as  a  remedy 
for  deafness. 

There  are  very  few  earwigs  in  the  Northern  States.  Some, 
however,  appear  in  the  South  and  along  the  Pacific  slope,  but  no 
damage  has  been  reported  from  these  insects  in  this  country.  In 
Europe,  however,  and  particularly  in  England,  earwigs  are  said 
to  be  injurious  and  are  said  to  nibble  the  petals  of  flowers.  There 
is  considerable  doubt,  however,  as  to  the  accuracy  of  this  inference, 
which  seems  to  have  been  made  by  gardeners.  The  entomolo- 
gists who  have  studied  the  question  of  the  food  of  the  earwigs 
have  been  unable  to  find  that  they  do  anything  of  the  sort. 
They  are  really  carnivorous,  living  upon  dead  insects,  upon  small 
snails,  and  upon  small  living  caterpillars.  It  is  suggested  that 
the  gardeners  have  held  the  earwigs  responsible  for  damage 
which  was  really  done  by  other  insects,  perhaps  even  the  very 
ones  upon  which  the  earwigs  have  preyed.  A  curious  habit 
which  earwigs  are  said  to  possess  is  that  the  females  brood  over 
the  eggs.  They  take  the  greatest  care  of  them,  collect  them 
when  scattered  and  move  them  from  place  to  place  in  an  endeavor 
to  secure  the  best  position  for  their  development.  When  the 
eggs  are  hatched,  however,  the  female  does  not  care  for  her 
young.  From  this  fact  it  would  seem  that  the  female  earwig  is 
not  as  good  a  mother  as  the  female  Psocus,  which  as  we  shall 
show,  keeps  her  young  by  her  after  hatching  and  in  fact  seems 
to  show  a  decided  appreciation  of  family  ties.  All  of  the  earwigs 
are  contained  in  the  single  family  Forficulidae. 


346 


Plate  XXXVll. 
SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS   OR   TRUE    LOCUSTS 


1.  Dissosteira  venusta 

2.  Schistocerca  damniflca  (side) 

3.  Heliastus  californicus 

4.  Schistocerca  vagans 

5.  Mestobregma  cincta 

6.  Dissosteira  obliterata 


7.  Gompiiicerus  elliotii 

8.  Aulocara  scudderi 

9.  Tryxalis  brevicornis 

10.  Dictyoplnorus  micropterus 

11.  Syrbula  admirabilis 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXXVII. 


THE    BIRD-LICE 


(Order  MallopJiaga.) 

The  very  strange  parasitic  insects  which  belong  to  this  order 
are  generally  known  by  the  name  bird-lice.  They  differ  widely 
from  true  lice  of  the  order  Heteroptera,  suborder  Anoplura,  and 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they 
are  known  as  bird-lice  some 
of  them  occur  on  mammals. 
From  this  fact  it  is  evident 
that  the  popular  name  bird- 
lice  is  a  misnomer,  and  it 
will  be  well  to  adopt 
Sharp's  suggestion  and  call 
the  Mallophaga  "biting 
lice"  as  opposed  to  the 
sucking  lice  of  the  sub- 
order Anoplura. 

They  are  very  small 
and  have  no  wings,  and 
the  principal  characteristic 
which  distinguishes  them 
from  the  true  lice  is  that 
instead  of  having  apparently 
sucking  mouth-parts  they 
have  biting  mouth-parts. 
They  do  not  suck  the  blood 
as  do  the  true  lice,  but  feed 
upon  the  feathers  or  hair  of 
the  birds  or  mammals  upon 
which  they  are  found. 
Their  metamorphosis  is  incomplete.  The  body  is  very  greatly 
flattened,  and  generally  hard;  the  head  is  large  and  flat;  the  anten- 
nae are  short,  and  three  to  five  jointed;  the  eyes  are  simple;  the 
347 


237. — Menopon  biseriatum 
(After  Osborn.J 


The  Bird-Lice 

jaws  are  usually  toothed  and  pointed;  the  legs  are  strong,  and, 
curiously  enough,  the  front  legs  are  short  and  are  used  only  in 
carrying  food  to  the  mouth.  When  at  rest,  they  project  forward 
beneath  the  head.     The  whole  body  is  usually  rather  hairy. 

The  eggs  are  elongate  oval  and  are  fastened  singly  to  the 
feathers  or  hairs  of  the  host.  The  young  issue  by  breaking  off  a 
circular  lid  at  the  larger  free  end  of  the  egg.  The  duration  of  the 
egg  stage  is  not  known. 

The  young  lice  when  first  hatched  look  much  like  the  full 
grown  lice,  except  that  the  head  is  comparatively  larger,  and  the 
markings  of  the  body  are  absent  or  dull.  Just  before  the  last 
molt  some  individuals  are  quite  as  large  as  the  adult  specimens. 
The  question  as  to  whether  they  really  draw  blood  has  been 
carefully  studied.  There  will  frequently  be  seen  a  large  dark 
blotch  indicating  some  opaque  contents  to  the 
stomach,  but  a  careful  examination  on  dissection 
has  shown  that  this  blotch  is  composed  of 
bits  of  feathers.  One  species  is  said  by  Kellogg 
to  live  in  the  pouch  of  a  pelican,  where,  of  course, 
there  is  no  hair,  and  about  the  portion  of  the 
membrane  to  which  the  lice  cling  the  surface  is 
raw  and  bloody,  but  here  Kellogg  thinks  that 
the  food  is  simply  the  epidermal  scales  of  the 
„    ^    .      inner  wall  of  the  pouch. 

Fig.   238. — Goni-  ^      ,       ,-    ,  1  •     1   ,•  , 

ocotes  abdom-  Such  of  these  bird-Iice  as  occur  upon  domes- 

inaiis.  ^j^.  fowls,  while  uot  seHous  pests,  undoubtedly 

(After  Denny:)  j        ,,  ■        ,      , 

cause  poultry  considerable  annoyance  simply  by 
the  irritation  of  the  skin  by  the  sharp  feet  of  the  parasites.  After 
a  hen  affected  with  bird-lice  dies,  the  insects  either  die  or  attempt 
to  leave  her  body  by  crawling  slowly  toward  the  head.  Con- 
sidering that  they  do  not  feed  upon  the  blood,  but  simply  upon 
the  feathers,  it  is  curious  that  they  should  die  after  the  death  of 
the  hen.  Kellogg  suggests  that  their  death  is  probably  due  to  the 
lack  of  animal  heat  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed  during 
the  life  of  the  host. 

Aquatic  birds  are  affected  with  bird-lice  quite  as  abundantly 
as  those  which  never  enter  the  water,  and  it  would  not  be  strange 
if  in  the  lice  affecting  such  birds  should  be  found  some  modifi- 
cation of  the  breathing  apparatus,  but  there  is  no  such  modification 
and  they  are  doubtless  protected  by  the  close  feathers,  so  that 
348 


The  Bird-Lice 


they  always  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  air  even  when  the  bird  or 
a  portion  of  its  body  remains  under  the  water  for  some  time. 

It  is  very  rare  that  bird-lice  ever  leave  the  body  of  the  host, 
but  they  do  migrate  from  one  bird  to  another  whenever  two  birds 
come  in  contact,  as  during  the  nesting  season  or  among  birds  of 
gregarious  habits. 

In  many  cases  a  given  species  of  Mallophaga  will  be  found 
to  be  confined  to  a  given  species  of  bird  or  mammal,  but  in  other 
cases  one  species  of  parasite  will  be 
found  upon  two  or  more  species  of 
birds.  Curiously  enough,  some  of  these 
parasites  are  found  in  Europe  on  birds 
which  differ  from  those  upon  which 
identically  the  same  species  of  parasite  y^t^^^'iP^ 
is  found  in  North  America.  Several  s^*®//l,' 
species  may  occur  upon  the  same  bird; 
for  example,  at   least   five   species   be-  'tCiK-.^^^  j 

longing  to  three  distinct  genera  have 
been  found  upon  the  common  fowl. 
Nearly  all  of  these  are  cosmopolitan  in- 
sects and  have  been  carried  upon  fowls 
to  all   parts    of   the    world.     Chickens         ^'g-  239.— Goniocotes 

.  .  dissimilis. 

hatched    in     an    incubator    should    be  (After  Detmy.) 

absolutely  free  from  lice  and  remain  so 

until  they  join  company  with  older  fowls.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  habit  which  hens  have  of  bathing  themselves  in  dust 
is  an  effort  on  their  part  to  get  rid  of  the  irritation  caused  by 
these  creatures. 

TABLE  OF  FAMILIES 

Antennae  filiform  with  three  or  five  joints;  no  labial  palpi. .    i 
Antennae  clubbed  or  knobbed  and  with  four  joints;  four-jointed 

labial  palpi 2 

I — Antennae  three-jointed;  tarsi  with  one  claw;  found  on  mam- 
mals   Family  Trkhodectidce 

Antennae  five-jointed ;  tarsi  with  two  claws;  found  on  birds 

Family  Philopteridce 

2 — Tarsi  with  one  claw;  found  on  mammals-  ■  .Family  Gyropidce 

Tarsi  with  two  claws;  found  on  birds Family  Liotheidce 

Any  detailed  consideration  of  the   habits  of  these  families 
will  be  unnecessary,  as  they  do  not  differ  in  a  sufficiently  marked 
manner  to  necessitate  such  treatment. 
349 


THE  BOOK-LICE  AND  THEIR  ALLIES 


(Order  Corrodoitia.) 

The  curious  little  wingless  insects  known  as  book-lice, 
which  are  found  frequently  in  numbers  among  old,  dusty  books 
in  damp  places,  and  the  interesting  little  bark-inhabiting  creatures 
known  as  Psocids  are  structurally  so  different  from  all  other 
insects  that  they  have  been  brought  together  in  the  order  Corro- 
dentia. 

Those  which  are  winged  have  four  wings  with  prominent 
veins  but  very  few  cross  veins.  The  fore  wings  are  larger  than 
the  hind  wings,  and  both  are  held  in  a  roof-shaped  manner  over 
the  back  when  not  in  use.  The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting, 
and  all  of  these  insects  have  very  incomplete  metamorphoses. 

The  true  Psocidae  (1  regret  that  there  is  no  popular  name  for 
these  insects,  for  they  are  very  interesting,  and  always  attract 

attention  when  seen)  live  to- 
gether   in    curious   little    col-* 
onies  on   the   bark   of   trees, 
especially    old   trees    covered 
with  a  growth  of  lichens,  or 
even  upon  the  surface  of  old 
fence   boards.     They  possess 
the  power  of  spinning  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  silk,  and  each 
colony   is    generally   covered 
with   a   delicate   silken   web. 
The  eggs  are  laid  together  in 
clusters,  and  the  development 
of  individuals  is  rather  rapid. 
Psocus  venosus  is  a  com- 
mon form  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  its  habits  have  been 
described  by  Hubbard,  who  has  studied  it  in  its  southern  range 
upon    the   trunks  of  orange   trees   in   Florida.     It  is  small  and 
35° 


Fig.  240. — Atropos  divinatoria. 
f  Redrawn  from  Marlatt.) 


Book- Lice  and  Their  Allies 

smoky-brown  in  color,  and  is  seen  upon  the  trunl<s  of  trees  in 
flocks  numbering  from  a  dozen  to  forty  or  fifty  individuals. 
They  feed  in  companies  and  browse  upon  the  lichens,  which  they 
cleanly  remove  from  the  bark,  leaving  a  clear  space  behind  them. 
The  colonies  consist  of  one  or  more  families,  and  include  indi- 
viduals of  all  ages,  the  wingless  young  herding  with  the  adult 
insects.  The  adults,  ahhough  winged,  do  not  readily  take  flight. 
When  alarmed  the  whole  troop  huddles  together  apparently  for 
mutual  protection  like  sheep,  but  when  seized  with  a  sudden 
panic  they  scatter  in  every  direction  and  run  rapidly  over  the 
bark,  their  color  harmonizing  so  closely  with  that  of  the  bark 
that  they  are  not  easily  distinguished.  Soon  after  they  reassem- 
ble and  begin  to  eat  the  lichens. 

The  eggs  are  oval,  glistening  white,  and  are  laid  upon  the 
bark  in  batches  of  fifteen  to  thirty,  deposited  on  end  in  several 
rows,  and  each  cluster  is  protected  by  an  oval,  convex  shield  of 
gnawed-up  wood  which  adheres  closely  to  the  eggs.  The 
females  brood  over  the  eggs,  see  that  they  are  not  disturbed,  and, 
when  they  hatch,  lead  the  young  ones  forth  to  pasture. 

This  insect  is  fond  of  shade  and  moisture,  and  is  most  often 
seen  in  densely  shaded  groves  and  old  gardens.  The  adults, 
according  to  Hubbard,  hibernate,  and  begin  breeding  early  in  the 
spring. 

'  Hubbard  has  also  studied  another  species,  Psocus  citricola, 
which  is  probably  a  Southern  form.  With  this  species  the  eggs 
are  laid  in  hollows  upon  orange  leaves  in  little  clusters  covered 
with  a  shield  of  black  excrementitious  matter.  Over  this  is 
stretched  a  slight  silken  web.  The  embryo  is  plainly  seen 
through  the  shell,  and  when  ready  to  hatch  air  bubbles  are  seen 
which  pass  in  rapid  succession  between  the  mouth-parts  and 
collect  in  a  larger  bubble  within  the  head.  From  time  to  time 
this  larger  bubble  passes  down  into  the  body  cavity.  The  head 
swells — elongates — distends  the  eggshell  at  the  end  until  it  bursts, 
and  then  the  young  insect  protrudes  its  body.  Air  continues  to 
pass  through  the  neck  into  the  abdomen,  which  becomes  greatly 
distended  and  elongated,  and  this  distention  causes,  probably, 
the  bursting  of  the  first  larval  skin.  The  process  of  hatching 
occupies  several  days. 

This  species  lives  upon  the  leaves  of  plants  associated  in 
small  flocks,  and  passes  the  greater  part  of  its  life  hiding  under 
351 


Book-Lice  and  Their  Allies 

the  canopies  of  webs  spun  over  the  egg  clusters.  Here  the 
mother  awaits  the  appearance  of  her  brood,  and  here  the  young 
insects  cluster,  sallying  forth  from  time  to  time  with  the  mother 
in  search  of  food. 

The  booI<-lice  belong  to  another  family,  the  Atropidse.  They 
are  very  small  and  some  of  them  have  been  supposed  to  make  a 
ticking  noise  which  in  olden  times  caused  them  to  be  known  as 
"death  watches." 

These  little  insects  are  widely  distributed,  and  are  commonly 
seen  on  library  shelves  and  in  old  records  in  closets.  They  are 
omnivorous,  feeding  on  any  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  and  are 
especially  fond  of  the  starch  paste  used  in  book  bindings  or  under 
wall  paper.  They  feed  on  flour  and  meal,  and  are  often  found  in 
natural  history  collections,  living  on  the  specimens.  They  are 
sometimes  found  in  straw  beds  and  in  the  straw  coverings  of 
wine  bottles.  A  case  has  been  recorded  in  Insect  Life  in  which 
they  bred  so  extensively  in  a  mattress  of  hair  and  corn  husks 
that  "a  pin  point  could  not  have  been  put  down  without  touch- 
ing one  or  more  of  the  bugs."  They  swarmed  over  the  sheets 
and  the  walls  of  the  room;  bureau  draws  were  swarming  with 
them,  and  the  mattress  no  doubt  contained  them  by  the  millions. 


352 


Plate  XXXVIII. 
SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS   OR   TRUE   LOCUSTS 


1.  Hippiscus  wheelerii 

2.  Trimerotropis  vinculata 

3.  Anconia  Integra 

4.  Hippiscus  haldemanni 
s.  Trimerotropis  suffusa 

6.  Acroiopliitus  hirtipes  (side) 


7.  Trimerotropis  cyanipennis 

8.  Hippiscus  neglectus 

9.  Circotettix  carlingianus 

10.  Acrolopiiitus  hirtipes 

1 1.  Hadrotettix  trifasciatus 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XXXVIII. 


(&y:^ 


WHITE    ANTS 

(Order  Is  opt  era.) 

Although  from  their  peculiarities  of  structure  the  insects  of 
this  group  form  a  distinct  order,  there  are  not  many  genera 
or  species,  and  there  is  in  fact  but  a  single  family,  namely,  the 
Termitidae  (unless  the  curious  family  Embiidte  be  included  here, 
which  would  not  seem  to  be  justified).  All  isopterous  insects 
are  known  popularly  as  white  ants.  As  the  late  Dr.  George  Marx 
once  remarked  jocularly  to  the  writer,  "they  are  called  white 
ants  because  they  are  not  ants  and  because  they  are  not  white." 


Fig.  241. — Termes  flavipes  :  adult  male.     (After  Marlatt.) 


At  this  late  date  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  attempt  to  change  a  popu- 
lar term  so  thoroughly  grafted  upon  the  literature  and  upon  the 
popular  mind,  but  if  people  would  only  call  them  termites,  a  short 
and  easy  word  to  pronounce,  instead  of  keeping  up  the  bald  mis- 
nomer— white  ants — the  cause  of  accuracy  and  truth  would  gain. 
Perhaps  there  is  a  slight  superficial  resemblance  between  these 
insects  and  ants,  but  they  are  structurally  radically  different. 
They  belong  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  insect  series  and  are  more 
closely  allied  to  the  stone-flies,  the  May-flies  and  even  the  dragon- 
353 


White    Ants 

flies,  than  they  are  to  ants.  Perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  not  so  much 
the  resemblance  of  the  individual  termite  to  an  ant  which  gave 
it  this  name  as  it  was  the  fact  that  all  termites  live  together  in 
communities  containing  different  castes  and  that  thus  their 
social  economy  is  in  a  way  ant-like. 

The  Isoptera  undergo  practically  no  transformation,  that  is  to 
say,  they  have  very  incomplete  metamorphoses.     The  young  ter- 


Fig.  242. — Termes  flavipes :  a,  supplementary  queen ;  b,  nymph  of  winged  female ; 
<:,  worker;  <?,  soldier.     ( After  Marlatt.) 


mite,  when  it  hatches  from  the  egg  is  an  active,  crawling,  six- 
legged  creature.  It  much  resembles  the  adult,  except  in  size, 
whereas  with  the  ants,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  larva  is  a  footless 
grub  which  looks  no  more  like  an  adult  than  a  garter  snake  re- 
sembles a  chipmunk.  All  species,  as  just  stated,  are  social  and 
the  communities  consist  of  both  wingless  and  winged  individuals. 

354 


White    Ants 

The  four  wings  are  very  long  and  when  in  repose  are  laid  flat 
along  the  back,  extending  far  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 
They  are  membranous  and  most  of  the  veins  are  longitudinal. 
The  hind  wings  are  of  almost  precisely  the  same  shape  and  size 
as  the  front  wings,  and  across  near  the  base  of  each  wing  is  a  line 
of  weakness  along  which  the  wing  breaks  off  after  the  so-called 
nuptial  flight.  The  wingless  individuals  in  each  colony  are,  with 
most  species,  excessively  numerous  and  as  a  rule  they  are  divided 
into  two  castes,  namely,  the  ordinary  workers  and  the  soldiers. 
The  so-called  soldiers  also  exist  with  the  true  ants  but  they  have 
not  in  these  creatures  become  such  a  structurally  well  differen- 
tiated caste  as  with  the  termites.  In  the  latter  the  jaws  have  be- 
come enormously  developed  and  in  some  cases  the  soldier  is  five 
times  the  size  of  a  worker.  Then,  in  some  species  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  workers  have  become  changed  in  form  particularly  by 
the  elongation  of  the  head  into  a  long,  nose-like  process  at  the 
tip  of  which  is  a  hole  through  which  is  exuded  a  fluid  which  is 
used  in  making  or  mending  the  walls  of  the  habitation.  This 
caste  is  known  as  the  nasuti,  or  nosed  ones,  a  term  which  must 
at  once  remind  the  admirers  of  Sienkiewicz  of  the  Polish  warrior, 
Kharlamp. 

The  order  Isoptera  reaches  its  highest  development  in  tropi- 
cal regions,  and  the  reading  world  has  been  familiar  with  the  main 
details  of  the  economy  of  the  extraordinary  species  which  build 
the  great  ant-mounds  in  Africa  since  the  days  when  Smeathman 
the  English  traveler,  described  them  in  print  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  ago.  The  females,  or  queens,  of  some  of  these 
African  species  grow  to  be  of  enormous  size.  The  abdomen, 
swollen  with  eggs,  sometimes  becomes  as  big  as  a  potato,  or 
20,000  or  30,000  times  the  bulk  of  a  worker.  The  rate  at  which 
the  eggs  are  laid  is  extraordinary  and  it  is  stated  at  sixty  a 
minute,  or  80,000  and  upwards  in  a  day.  Listening  to  an  account 
of  this  extraordinary  egg-laying,  which  was  given  before  the 
Biological  Society  of  Washington  by  Mr.  O.  F.  Cook,  a  friend 
remarked  to  the  writer  in  a  whisper,  "What  a  fortune  that 
would  mean  with  eggs  at  twenty-five  cents  a  dozen!" 

In  the  United  States  there  exist  comparatively  few  species, 
and  only  one  which  has  a  northward  range  into  the  territory 
occupied  by  most  of  the  readers  of  this  book.  This  is  Termes 
flavipes  Koll.     It  is  probably  a  true  American  species  but  was 


accidentally  introduced  into  Europe  many  years  ago.  It  de- 
stroyed the  imperial  greenhouses  at  Schonbron,  near  Vienna,  so 
that  they  were  replaced  by  houses  with  iron  frames.  Another 
species  which  is  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  but 
which  does  not  seem  to  be  especially  common,  is  also  found  in 
Europe  and  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  destructive  termites 
found  there.  This  is  Termes  hicifugus  Rossi.  It  has  not  yet 
been  definitely  determined  whether  this  insect  is  a  native  of 
Europe  or  of  America.  It  occurs  in  all  of  the  Mediterranean 
countries  in  Europe  and  is  found  in  Texas,  Kansas,  Colorado  and 
Southern  California,  and  perhaps  elsewhere.  Another  species, 
known  as  Termes  tubiformaiis  Buckley,  is  a  form  of  curious 
habits  occurring  in  Texas,  in  the  spring,  beneath  and  within 
patches  of  cow-dung,  and  after  midsummer  making  tubes  around 
grass  stems  and  the  stems  of  other  plants,  nesting  probably  deep 
in  the  ground.  Still  another  Texas  form,  known  as  Entermes 
nigriceps  Haldeman,  is  a  small  species  which  constructs  nests, 
apparently  of  cow  dung,  which  are  attached  to  the  trunks  of 
trees.  Buckley  wrote  of  this  form,  "  It  was  about  sunset  on  the 
22d  of  October,  i860,  when  1  first  saw  this  species  in  a  field, 
where  both  workers  and  nasuti  were  carrying  home  seeds  of 
grasses  and  weeds.  They  marched  in  dense  columns  along 
pathways  leading  to  a  hole  near  the  base  of  a  stump,  into  which 
they  entered.  *  *  *  They  dwell  in  the  ground  where  they 
have  iooms,  seldom  more  than  one  to  two  inches  long,  con- 
nected by  tunnels.  *  *  *  After  rains — which  are  of  rare  occur- 
rence in  that  climate — they  make  semi-cylindrical  tubes,  which 
lie  on  the  ground  with  a  length  of  from  three  to  six  inches. 
These  arched  ways  sometimes  intercept  each  other,  being  con- 
nected with  chambers;  but  they  rarely  work  by  day  above  the 
surface  and  never  in  bright  sunshine." 

Of  the  commonest  of  our  species,  Termes  flavipes,  it  is  greatly 
to  be  regretted  that  no  thoroughly  good  account  of  its  life  history 
has  been  published.  The  true  queen,  in  fact,  has  never  been 
found,  unless  it  should  turn  out  that  a  large  queen  found  two  or 
three  years  ago  by  Mr.  H.  G.  Hubbard  in  the  mountains  in 
southern  Arizona  should  belong  to  this  species.  In  the  Northern 
States  its  nests  are  to  be  found  under  almost  any  decaying  log, 
and,  although  many  entomologists  have  examined  these  nests, 
they  have  never  found  the  queen.  From  Baltimore  southward, 
35° 


and  perhaps  even  a  little  farther  north,  this  insect  becomes  a 
serious  pest  in  houses,  particularly  in  old  houses  which  are  rather 
damp.  They  make  their  nests  in  old  beams,  such  as  the  main 
floor  joists,  and  construct  innumerable  tunnels,  running  usually 
with  the  grain,  so  that,  although  a  great  deal  of  the  substance  of 
the  wood  is  devoured,  the  main  longitudinal  fibers  support 
the  building  structure  for  a  long  time;  in  fact,  their  presence 
in  many  cases  would  not  be  noticed  except  for  the  spring 
flight  of  the  winged  males  and  females.  Quite  recently  a 
handsome  private  residence  in  the  city  of  Baltimore  was  found  to 
have  its  timbers  on  the  first  floor  reduced  almost  to  shells  by  the 
workers  of  this  insect.  Further  south,  not  only  the  buildings, 
but  even  furniture  is  destroyed  by  them  in  the  same  way.  They 
seem  especially  fond  of  paper,  and  Forbes  has  recorded  the  fact 
that  a  collection  of  books  and  papers  of  the  state  of  Illinois  was 
completely  ruined  by  them.  A  school  library  in  South  Carolina, 
which  had  been  left  closed  for  the  summer,  was  found,  on  being 
opened  in  the  autumn,  to  be  completely  eaten  out  and  rendered 
valueless.  The  work  of  these  insects  was  brought  home  strongly 
to  the  writer  on  one  occasion  when  a  lot  of  records  and  documents 
stored  in  a  vault  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  was  found  to 
be  mined  and  ruined  by  them;  and  again,  the  floor  of  one  of  the 
largest  sections  of  the  United  States  National  Museum  was  annu- 
ally undermined  and  weakened  until  it  was  torn  up  and  replaced 
with  cement.  Whenever  an  old  beam  is  found  to  have  been 
hollowed  out,  even  if  no  insects  are  present,  it  can  readily  be 
identified  as  the  work  of  termites  by  the  fact  that  all  of  the 
galleries  are  plastered  with  a  brownish,  mortar-like  substance 
composed  of  excrement,  from  which,  apparently,  all  nourish- 
ing food  has  been  taken.  In  Florida  this  insect  is  often  the  cause 
of  great  damage  to  orange  trees,  working  around  the  crown  and 
in  the  roots  of  trees,  and  altogether  it  is  a  thoroughly  bad 
character. 

In  the  most  general  terms  the  life  of  a  termite  colony  is  about 
as  follows:  After  the  so-called  nuptial  flight  (which  is  made 
usually  at  a  certain  time  of  the  year,  and  with  Teniies  flavipes 
it  is  generally  in  the  spring)  composed  of  winged  individuals  of 
both  sexes,  male  and  female,  and  which  always,  except  when  it 
occurs  in  houses,  attracts  birds  and  other  insect-eating  creatures 
so  that  most  of  the  individuals  are  destroyed,  the  wings  of  the 
357 


White  Ants 

survivors  break  off  and  they  either  pair  and  attempt  to  start  a 
new  colony  or  they  drop  in  such  a  situation  that  workers  from 
some  old  colony  find  them,  join  forces  with  them,  and  thus  start 
a  new  community.  The  body  of  the  true  female,  or  queen,  be- 
gins to  swell  with  eggs,  grows  enormously,  and  egg-laying  com- 
mences. Unlike  the  true  ants  or  any  of  the  other  social  Hymen- 
optera,  the  young  require  very  little  care  from  the  workers. 
They  are  quite  active  and  very  soon  feed  themselves  to  some 
extent.  The  food  of  the  termites  is  variable.  It  consists  of 
wood  fiber,  or  their  own  cast  skins,  or  their  excrement,  or  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  regurgitated  by  other  individuals,  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  soldiers,  they  may  eat  dying  or  even  healthy 
workers.  The  enlarged  head  and  great  jaws  of  the  soldiers  unfit 
them,  in  fact,  for  any  other  kind  of  food.  They  can  not  gnaw 
wood  very  well,  and,  as  Sharp  has  expressed  it,  "their  condition 
may  be  considered  to  be  that  of  permanent  hunger,  only  to  be 
allayed  by  carnivorous  proceedings."  When  the  nest  is  disturbed 
and  the  soldiers  get  excited  they  dash  their  jaws  around  and  fre- 
quently kill  their  fellows,  but  of  course  this  is  more  or  less  acci- 
dental, since  they  have  no  eyes.  When  a  Callotermes  wishes 
food,  according  to  Grassi,  it  strokes  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body  of  another  individual  with  its  antennae  and  by  some  sort  of 
a  reflex  action  the  contents  of  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  indi- 
vidual stroked  issue  from  the  anus  and  are  devoured  by  the 
stroker.  The  habitations  of  all  termites  are  very  cleanly,  which 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  they  eat  everything,  the  contents 
of  the  alimentary  canal  being  eaten  again  and  again  until  all 
nourishment  has  been  taken  out  of  it.  Hubbard,  in  Jamaica, 
found  that  the  young  feed  upon  prepared  food  which  is  stored  up 
in  the  form  of  very  hard  and  tough  round  masses,  some  nests 
containing  many  pounds'  weight.  This  material  is  softened  by 
saliva  before  it  can  be  eaten.  The  true  queens  can  be  distin- 
guished at  once  by  the  stumps  of  their  old  wings  as  well  as, 
later,  by  their  enlarged  abdomens;  but  there  are  in  most  colonies 
individuals  known  as  supplementary  queens,  which  are  capa- 
ble of  reproduction  up  to  a  certain  point  and  undoubtedly  help 
to  carry  the  colony  on  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  true  queen. 
These  supplementary  queens  are  undoubtedly  female  workers 
which  have  been  fed  in  a  certain  way  and  which  develop  up  to 
a  certain  point,  although  not  to  the  point  of  becoming  winged. 
358 


Plate  XXXIX. 

SHORT-HORNED   GRASSHOPPERS   OR   TRUE   LOCUSTS 

(reduced  one-third) 


1.  Spharagemon  bollii  6  7 

2.  Hippiscus  rugosus  8 

3.  Melanoplus  femur-rubrum  q 

4.  Spharagemon  bollii  $  10 

5.  Chimarocephalaviridifasciata  31 

6.  Schistocera  damnifica 


Hippiscus  plicenicopterus 
Dissosteira  Carolina 
Schistocerca  sanguinea 
Schistocerca  americana 
Spharagemon  asquale 


The  Insect  Book, 


Plate  XXXIX. 


White  Ants 

One  of  these,  found  by  Hubbard  in  the  nests  of  Termes  flavipes 
in  Florida,  is  shown  at  Fig.  242. 

In  America  Termes  lucifiigus  has  not  been  studied,  but  in 
Europe  its  history  is  rather  well  known.  It  burrows  in  wood  of 
different  kinds,  makes  excavations  and  builds  galleries  so  that  it 
can  move  from  one  point  to  another  without  being  exposed. 
This  suggests  that  we  have  as  yet  omitted  to  state  that  all 
termites  shun  the  light,  except  during  the  nuptial  flight;  in  fact, 
the  workers  and  soldiers  are  almost  invariably  blind,  although 
with  certain  African  species  of  the  genus  Hodotermes  facetted 
eyes  occur  in  these  castes  and  they  issue  from  holes  in  the  ground 
during  the  heat  of  the  day  and  cut  grass.  There  seems  to  be 
some  question,  however,  whether  these  creatures  really  belong 
to  this  group.  It  is  supposed  also  that  these  galleries  keep  the 
right  degree  of  moisture,  since  in  dry  air  these  creatures  die. 
Many  thousands  compose  a  community.  The  period  of  develop- 
ment apparently  occupies  from  eighteen  to  twenty-three  months. 

Probably  in  the  whole  range  of  insects  treated  in  this  book 
there  is  no  species  which  offers  a  better  and  more  convenient 
field  of  study  than  the  common  Termes  flavipes.  1  feel  sure  that 
what  we  know  about  it  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  what  remains  to 
be  learned,  and  it  is  everywhere  so  abundant  that  the  earnest  ob- 
server need  never  be  without  material. 

Just  as  with  the  ants,  and  also  with  some  of  the  social  bees, 
so  that  we  may,  in  fact,  say  just  as  with  all  social  insects,  in  the 
habitations  of  termites  will  be  found  many  guest  insects.  Such 
insects  in  ants'  nests  are  known  as  Myrmecophilous;  in  termites' 
nests  they  are  known  as  Termitophiloits  insects,  and  the  study  of 
these  insects,  in  the  United  States,  offers  an  almost  unexplored 
field.  Mr.  E.  A.  Schwarz  has  paid  some  attention  to  them,  and  in 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Washington  (Vol. 
I,  pp.  160,  161)  has  given  a  list  of  nine  species  of  beetles  found 
living  in  termites'  nests  and  has  published  some  very  interesting 
notes  about  them.  No  true  hymenopterous  parasites  of  termites 
are  known,  unless  the  curious,  big-headed  chalcis  flies  of  the 
genus  Caratomus  should  prove  to  be  parasitic  upon  them. 

The  damage  done   by  termites  in  tropical   regions  is  very 

great.     In  Central  America  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  erect 

wooden  telegraph  poles  which  will  last  for  any  length  of  time, 

since  they  are  tunneled  by  these  creatures  and  weakened  to  their 

359 


White  Ants 

fall  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  Accounts  of  damage  done  in 
houses,  both  in  Tropical  America  and  in  Africa,  as  well  as  in 
British  India,  occur  commonly  in  the  literature.  A  striking 
account,  however,  of  damage  in  Rhodesia  occurs  in  the  Zambesi 
Mission  /?f^ori/ for  January,  1901,  written  by  the  Rev.  A.  Leboeuf, 
and  which  is  cjuoted  in  Nature.  "'It  is  no  uncommon  thing' 
says  the  writer  '  for  the  colonist,  on  returning  from  his  day's 
labor,  to  find  the  coat  he  left  hanging  on  a  nail  on  his  cottage 
wall  and  the  books  on  the  table  absolutely  destroyed  by  these 
tiny  marauders.'  Nor  is  this  all.  '  On  awakening  next  morning,' 
writes  Mr.  Leboeuf,  'you  are  astonished  to  see  in  the  dim  light 
a  cone-shaped  object  rising  from  the  brick  floor  a  short  distance 
from  your  bed,  with  two  holes  on  the  top  like  the  crater  of  a 
miniature  volcano.  Upon  closer  examination  you  discover  that 
the  holes  have  just  the  size  and  shape  of  the  inside  of  your  boots, 
which  you  incautiously  left  on  the  brick  floor  the  night  before. 
They  have  given  form  and  proportion  to  an  ant  heap,  and  nothing 
is  left  of  them  except  the  nails,  eyelets  and,  maybe,  part  of  the 
heels.'" 

There  are  certain  insects  which  belong  to  the  family  Embiidse 
which  seem  to  have  a  relationship  to  the  termites  but  their  de- 
tailed consideration  may  well  be  omitted  from  this  work,  since 
but  a  single  species  is  known  in  North  America,  namely,  Oligo- 
toma  hubbardi  Hagen,  and  which  occurs  rarely  in  Florida. 


360 


THE    STONE-FLIES 

(Order  Plccoptcra.) 

This  order  is  not  a  large  one  and  contains  only  the  single 
family  Perlidse,  of  which  thirteen  genera  are  represented  in  North 
America  and  less  than  a  hundred  species.  The  stone-flies  have 
mouth-parts  formed  for  biting;  the  body  is  long  and  soft  and 
fiat;  the  wings  are  four  in  number  and  are  membranous,  the 
hind  wings  being  much  larger  than  the  fore  wings,  folded  in 
plates,  and  lie  upon  the  abdomen  when  at  rest.  The  antennae 
are  long  and  thread-like.  The  larvae  are  aquatic  and  are  usually 
found  under  stones  in  running  water.  The  flies  are  commonly 
seen  about  water  courses  in  the  first  warm  days  of  spring,  and 
the  cast  skins  of  the  nymphs,  or  pupae,  sticking  to  stones  and 
logs  on  the  banks  of  streams,  are  very  common  objects.  The 
eggs  are  produced  in  enormous  numbers.  They  are  small  and 
are  probably  dropped  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  with  the 
May-flies,  but  some  of  them,  even  after  they  issue  from  the  ab- 
domen enclosed  in  a  kind  of  capsule,  are  carried  about  by  the 
female.  One  female  may  deposit  5,000  or  6,000  eggs.  The 
larvae  when  hatched  are  very  active  and  are  carnivorous  in  habits, 
feeding  upon  the  young  of  the  May-flies  and  other  soft-bodied 
aquatic  animals.  They  are  as  a  rule  very  flat  in  form,  which 
enables  them  to  crawl  under  heavy  stones  at  the  bottom  of  swift 
running  streams.  The  head  is  large  and  flat  and  the  eyes  are 
large  and  compound.  They  resemble  the  adults  in  general 
structure  except  that  they  lack  the  wings.  There  are  as  a  rule 
two  long  protruding  filaments  at  the  anal  end  of  the  body,  and 
they  breathe  by  means  of  tracheal  gills.  The  legs  are  flattened 
and  are  fringed  with  hairs,  fitting  the  insect  admirably  for  swim- 
ming. The  long  antennae  are  present  in  the  larvae  also  and  when 
the  larva  is  hidden  beneath  a  stone  frequently  the  antennae  curve 
around  upwards,  apparently  to  give  it  warning  of  the  approach 
of  prey.  The  jaws  are  strong  and  toothed  but  are  hidden  by  the 
.l6i 


The  Stone-Flies 

upper  lip.  The  full-grown  nymph  is  not  at  all  pupa-like  and  is 
active. 

The  enormous  number  of  eggs  laid  by  stone-flies  indicates 
that  the  chances  of  successful  larval  growth  are  rather  small  and 
as  a  matter  of  fact  these  larvae  are  extensively  eaten  by  fishes.  It 
makes  no  difference  to  the  average  fish  whether  he  eats  a  carniv- 
orous stone-fly  larva  or  a  vegetable-feeding  May-fly  larva.  If 
there  were  economic  entomologists  among  the  fishes  these  would 
devote  themselves  to  the  destruction  of  the  stone-fly  larvse  in 
order  that  the  general  food  supply  of  May-flies  might  be  left  un- 
disturbed for  fish  food ! 

We  have  said  that  the  larvae  breathe  by  means  of  tracheal 
gills.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  with  some  species  there  are 
no  such  gills  and  no  spiracles.  These  larvae  must  take  their  oxy- 
gen from  the  water  through  the  skin,  the  ultimate  tracheae  being 
especially  numerous  in  the  spots  where  the  spiracles  would  be  if 
there  were  any  and  the  skin  at  this  point  is  especially  thin.  This 
method  of  breathing  has  been  already  mentioned  in  our  accounts 
of  the  larvae  of  the  Chironomidas  and  of  the  larvae  of  the  internal 
feeding  parasitic  Hymenoptera. 

An  aquarium  student  with  an  aquarium  so  constructed  as  to 
maintain  a  constant  current  of  water  will  do  good  service  in 
fully  elaborating  the  life  history  of  any  of  our  common  species. 


362 


DRAGON-FLIES 

(Order  Odonata.) 

Excepting  the  butterflies,  there  are  few  more  attractive  and 
graceful  insects  than  the  "  dragon-flies,"  as  the  members  of  this 
order  are  generally  termed.  They  are  insects  which  have  always 
attracted  attention,  and  which  are  known  by  a  variety  of 
vernacular  names,  of  which  dragon-fly  is  the  commonest  English 


Fig  243. — A  dragon-fly  :     Platheniis  lydia. 

term.  They  are  known  in  some  parts  of  the  country  as  "devil's 
darning  needles;"  elsewhere  as  "snake  feeders"  or  "snake 
doctors;"  in  Scotland  as  "flying  adders,"  and  in  some  parts  of 
England  as  "  horse  stingers."  Although  the  insects  are  perfectly 
harmless,  these  names  well  indicate  the  existence  of  numerous 
popular  superstitions.  Some  believe  that  they  will  sew  up  the 
ears  of  bad  boys;  others  that  they  sting  horses;  still  others  that 
they  act  as  feeders  and  physicians  to  snakes,  especially  to  water 
snakes. 

The  Odonata  are  slender  insects  with  a  very  large  head  which 
moves  most  easily   upon  its  slender  neck,  even   rotating  to  a 


Dragon-Flies 

considerable  extent.  The  eyes  are  very  large,  but  the  antennae 
are  small  and  short.  The  wings  are  elongate,  nearly  equal  in 
size,  and  have  many  veins,  both  longitudinal  and  transverse,  so 
that  the  entire  surface  of  the  wing  is  cut  up  into  many  small 
cells.  The  legs  are  placed  near  the  front  of  the  thorax,  and  all 
curve  forward  and  are  used  for  grasping  the  prey  of  the  dragon- 
fly, and  never  for  walking.  In  fact,  the  legs  are  unfitted  for 
walking,  although  they  are  used  to  grasp  the  twig  or  other 
object  upon  which  the  dragon-fly  may  rest.  All  of  the  dragon- 
flies  are  aquatic  in  their  early  stages.  The  metamorphosis  is 
complete  in  so  far  that  the  larvae  dilTer  radically  in  appearance 
from  the  adults,  but  the  pupa  is  not  quiescent  at  any  time.  It  is 
very  active,  and  feeds  up  to  the  moment  when  the  final  meta- 
morphosis begins.  The  jaws  in  all  stages  are  strong,  and  both 
larvae  and  adults  are  extremely  active  and  are  among  the  strongest 
and  most  graceful  flyers  of  all  insects.  Their  flight  is  so  perfect 
that  it  has  been  seriously  suggested  that  flying  machines  should 
be  modeled  after  the  flight  mechanism  of  these  insects. 

A  very  peculiar  feature  of  the  adult  is  the  curious  separation 
in  the  male  of  the  intromittent  organs  from  the  opening  of  the 
ejaculatory  duct.  The  former  are  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the 
second  abdominal  segment,  while  the  latter  are  on  the  next'to  the 
last  ventral  plate.  Therefore,  before  copulation,  the  male  curves 
his  abdomen  around  beneath,  so  that  the  ninth  segment  of  the 
abdomen  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  second,  thus  transfer- 
ring the  fertilizing  fluid  to  the  intromittent  organ.  The  tip  of 
the  abdomen  of  the  female  is  bent  around  and  joins  with  the 
under  side  of  the  second  segment  of  the  male's  abdomen,  the 
male  frequently  grasping  the  female  around  the  neck  with  certain 
appendages  at  the  extremity  of  his  abdomen.  He  retains  this 
hold  after  fertilization,  and  frequently  during  the  entire  process  of 
egg-laying.  Even  with  such  species  as  descend  under  the 
surfiice  of  the  water  to  lay  their  eggs  the  male  has  been  observed 
to  still  retain  his  grasp  of  the  female's  neck,  and  to  be  carried 
down  under  the  water  with  her. 

Dragon-flies  capture  their  prey  on  the  wing,  and  feed  upon 
almost  all  flying  insects,  especially  the  small  ones — that  is,  the 
gnats  and  midges.  They  alter  their  direction  with  perfect  facility, 
and  dart  here  and  there,  unerringly  capturing  their  prey.  Pos- 
sibly some  of  the  smallest  are  seized  with  the  jaws,  but  the  larger 
364 


FIG. 


Plate  XL. 

DRAGON  FLIES 

(reduced  one-third) 


1.  Plathemis  lydia  ?  (Libeliulidse)  U.  S. 

2.  Perithemis  domitia  ,5  (Libellulidae)  U.  S.,  east  of  Mississippi; 

W.  I.,  Argentine  Republic 

3.  Libellula  4-maculata  ^  (Libeliulidre)  Nortliern  U.  S.,   Europe 

and  Asia 

4.  Peritliemis  domitia  §  (Libellulidae)  U.  S.,  east  of  Mississippi; 

W.  1.,  Argentine  Republic 

5.  Plathemis  lydia  S  (Libellulidae)  U.  S. 

6.  Perithemis  domitia  ?  (Libellulidae)   U.  S.,  east  of  Mississippi; 

W.  I.,  Argentine  Republic 

7.  Libellula  pulchella  S  (Libellulidae)  Quebec,  U.  S. 

8.  Tramea  lacerata  (Libellulidae)  N.  A.,  Hawaiian  Islands 

9.  Pachydiplax  longipennis  $  (Libellulidae)  N.  A. 

10.  Somatochlora  walshii  S  (Cordulida)  White  Mts.  of  N.  H.,  Me. 

11.  Libellula  vibrans  .?  (Libellulidre)  Eastern  and  Southern  U.  S. 

12.  Gomphus  plagiatus  ,?  (Gomphidae)  Eastern  and  Southern  U.S. 

13.  Libellula  plumbea  (Libellulidae)  N.  Y.  to  S.  C. 

14.  Celithemis  elisa  ?  (Libellulidae)  Can.  to  Ga.,  Mich.,  111. 

15.  Anax  Junius  9  (/Eschnidae)  N.  A.,  W.  I.,   Hawaiian  Islands, 

Kamchatka,  China 

16.  Sympetrum  obtrusum  6  (Libellulidae)  Northern  N.  A. 


The  Insect  Book. 


Dragon-Flies 

ones  are  undoubtedly  captured  by  the  legs,  and  are  consumed 
during  flight,  and  so  rapidly  is  all  this  done  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  see  the  operation.  The  only  way,  in  fact,  that  one 
can  know  that  an  insect  has  been  captured  is,  as  Dr.  Needham 
expresses  it,  to  see  that  the  place  that  once  knew  them  knows 
them  no  more. 

Flies  seem  to  be  their  commonest  food,  but  large  dragon-flies 
will  eat  small  ones.  Leaf-hoppers  and  even  small  butterflies  and 
moths  are  captured  by  them.  Some  forms  will  occasionally  pick 
up  a  moth  from  a  weed  or  a  grass  stem  on  which  it  is  resting, 
and  even  one  of  the  large  swallow-tailed  butterflies  has  been  seen 
captured  by  a  dragon-fly,  while  Williamson  states  that  he  once 
saw  one  holding  a  large  wasp  in  its  jaws.  The  voracity  of  a 
large  dragon-fly  may  easily  be  tested  by  capturing  one  and  hold- 
ing it  by  its  wings  folded  together  over  its  back,  and  then  feed- 
ing it  live  house-flies.  1  should  hesitate  to  say  how  many  it  will 
accept  and  devour,  as  I  never  tried  one  to  the  limit  of  its  capacity. 
Beutenmiiller  found  that  one  of  the  large  ones  would  eat  forty 
house-flies  inside  of  two  hours,  while  a  smaller  one  ate  twenty- 
five  in  the  same  time.  It  is  an  odd  fact  that  a  dragon-fly  will 
eat  its  own  body  when  offered  to  him.  Even  when  insufficiently 
chloroformed  and  pinned,  if  one  revives,  it  will  cease  all  efforts 
to  escape  if  fed  with  house-flies,  the  satisfying  of  its  appetite 
making  it  apparently  oblivious  to  the  discomfort  or  possible  pain 
of  a  big  pin  through  its  thorax.  There  is  one  record  to  the  effect 
that  a  dragon-fly  has  been  observed  feeding  upon  the  flesh  of  a 
dead  reptile. 

Although  dragon-flies  are  frequently  very  abundant  in 
swampy  regions  and  about  ponds,  there  are  times  when  they 
swarm  in  enormous  numbers.  Koppen,  a  German  entomologist, 
has  published  a  chronological  account  of  the  records  of  dragon- 
fly migrations,  from  1494  to  1868.  Such  migrating  swarms 
seem  to  have  been  more  frequently  noticed  in  Europe  than  in 
this  country,  but  several  have  been  noticed  in  the  United  States. 
For  example,  Mr.  A.  H.  Mundt,  of  Fairbury,  Illinois,  says  that 
between  the  hours  of  5  and  7  P.  M.,  August  13,  1881,  "the 
air  for  miles  around  seemed  literally  alive  with  these  dragon-flies 
(yEschna  heros)  from  a  foot  above  ground  to  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach,  all  flying  in  the  same  direction,  a  southwesterly 
course,  and  the  few  that  would  occasionally  cross  the  track  of 
36s 


Dragon-Flies 

the  majority  could  all  the  more  easily  be  noticed  from  the  very 
regular  and  swift  course  they  generally  pursued;  but  even  these 
fevi'  stray  ones  would  soon  fall  in  with  the  rest  again.  Very  few 
were  seen  alighting,  and  all  carefully  avoided  any  movable  obsta- 
cles." This  migration  was  probably  caused  by  the  very  dry 
season  which  had  resulted  in  the  drying  up  of  ponds  and 
swamps,  and  it  is  probable  that  other  similar  recorded  migrations 
have  arisen  from  the  same  cause. 

Among  the  insects  killed  by  dragon-flies  there  must  be,  of 
course,  some  mosquitoes,  although  the  beneficial  work  of  these 
insects  in  this  direction  is  greater  in  the  larval  stage  than  in  the 
adult.  Dragon-flies  are  day  flyers,  but  in  cloudy  weather  and 
toward  evening  many  mosquitoes  are  undoubtedly  killed  by  them. 
Dr.  E.  A.  Mearns,  U.  S.  A.,  (quoted  by  Beutenmiiller)  states  that 
at  Fort  Snelling,  Minn.,  mosquitoes  appeared  in  vast  swarms,  and 
were  soon  followed  by  large  numbers  of  dragon-flies  after  which 
the  mosquitoes  were  considerably  reduced  in  numbers.  Dr. 
Robert  H.  Lamborn,  noticing  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  the 
activity  of  dragon-flies  in  this  regard,  years  later  offered  a  prize 
for  the  best  essay  on  the  artificial  multiplication  of  dragon-flies 
for  the  destruction  of  mosquitoes  and  house-flies.  The  prize 
essays  by  Mrs.  Carrie  B.  Aaron,  Mr.  Archibald  C.  Weeks,  and  Mr. 
William  Beutenmiiller  were  published  in  1890  in  a  very  readable 
and  valuable  book,  but  as  might  have  been  foreseen  the  practical 
value  of  Dr.  Lamborn's  suggestion  was  not  substantiated. 

The  eggs  are  laid  either  in  the  water  or  are  inserted  in  the 
stem  of  some  aquatic  plant. 

In  the  dragon-flies  of  two  families  there  is  no  apparatus  for 
the  insertion  of  eggs  into  plant  stems,  and  they  are  therefore 
either  dropped  loosely  in  the  water  or  attached  to  submerged 
objects  by  means  of  a  mucilaginous  substance  which  surrounds 
them.  With  others,  however,  there  is  a  curious  modification  of 
the  end  of  the  body.  The  sides  of  the  vulva  are  pointed  or 
roughened,  and  cut  into  plant  tissue  so  that  the  eggs  may  be 
pushed  into  the  cuts.  Here  the  female  gradually  crawls  down 
the  stem  of  a  water  plant  until  she  is  often  completely  submerged. 
She  is  always  incased  with  an  air  film  so  that  she  can  continue 
to  breathe  under  water  to  a  certain  extent.  The  number  of  eggs 
is  variable,  but  is  usually  large.  Some  very  curious  Hymenop- 
terous  parasites  live  in  the  eggs  of  dragon-flies. 
366 


Dragon-Flies 

When  the  eggs  hatch  the  young  immediately  begin  an  active, 
predatory  life  under  the  water,  feeding  upon  other  aquatic  in- 
sects. This  food  habit  is  continued  throughout  their  larval  or 
nymphal  existence,  and  as  they  grow  larger  they  are  able  to  over- 
power larger  and  larger  insects  and  even  small  fish  and  other 
aquatic  animals.  They  will  kill  others  of  their  own  kind,  and 
nymphal  dragon-flies  have  been  seen  to  catch  and  destroy  adults 
in  which  the  wings  were  not  yet  expanded.  They  molt  probably 
a  number  of  times,  but  the  exact  number  has  not  been  recorded 
for  any  species,  so  far  as  I  know.  The  most  peculiar  feature  of 
the  larva  or  nymph  is  the  strange  modification  of  the  mouth. 
There  has  been  a  backward  growth  of  the  lower  lip  and  this  has 
become  hinged  so  as  to  form  a  long,  hinged  apparatus  with 
sharp  teeth  at  its  extremity.  It  can  be  folded  to  cover  the  lower 
face  like  a  mask.  The  structure  has  been  called  a  mask,  and 
when  it  is  folded  the  head  of  a  dragon-fly  larva  seen  from  the 
front  looks  like  that  of  a  bulldog.  It  is  more  innocent  looking 
than  that  of  a  bulldog  simply  because  we  know  what  a  bulldog 
can  do,  but  the  moment  that  the  larva  approaches  near  enough  to  its 
prey  the  innocent  looking  mask  is  unfolded  and  darted  out,  and 
the  probably  unsuspecting  aquatic  insect  or  small  fish  is  seized 
by  the  teeth  at  the  extremity  and  drawn  back  into  the  mouth. 

Dragon-fly  larvae  breathe  in  a  peculiar  way  modified  to  some 
extent  with  the  members  of  the  different  families.  The  rectum 
is  furnished  with  very  many  tracheal  branches,  forming 
numerous  loops  and  even  penetrating  the  walls  of  the  intestine. 
Water  is  sucked  into  the  rectum,  and  these  "  rectal  gills,"  as  they 
are  termed,  derive  their  oxygen  from  this  water.  This  same 
feature  affords  with  some  species  a  means  of  locomotion,  for  this 
water  which  is  sucked  in  for  breathing  purposes  may  be  ejected 
violently,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  send  the  larva  ahead.  This 
same  principle  has  been  used  in  certain  mechanical  toys,  and  ap- 
plications have  even  been  made  for  patents  on  a  similar  method 
of  propulsion  for  vessels.  With  some  there  are  external  abdomi- 
nal gills,  both  lateral  and  caudal,  while  when  the  nymph  be- 
comes full  grown  and  is  ready  to  leave  the  water  breathing  is 
taken  up  by  certain  obscure  spiracles.  There  is  still  some  doubt 
as  to  the  exact  method  by  which  they  begin  to  breathe  air  after 
leaving  the  water,  and  it  is  a  subject  which  will  bear  much  fur- 
ther investigation. 

367 


Dragon-Flies 

When  the  nymph  becomes  full  grown,  it  has  changed  its 
form  from  a  rather  slender  creature  to  a  broad  and  flattened  one, 
not  resembling  the  slender  bodied  adults  in  the  least.  It  crawls 
out  of  the  water  on  the  bank  upon  the  stems  of  water  plants  or 
upon  the  rocks,  and  later  its  skin  splits  down  the  back,  and  the 
adult  dragon-fly  emerges.  Empty  skins  of  these  nymphs  are 
very  common  objects  about  watercourses. 

Rather  more  than  two  thousand  species  of  dragon-flies  have 
been  described,  and  of  these  something  less  than  three  hundred 
inhabit  the  United  States,  of  which  about  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  species  are  peculiar  to  this  country.  According  to 
Kellicott,  about  one  hundred  species  are  found  in  the  State  of 
Ohio,  and  Williamson  thinks  that  even  more  are  to  be  found  in 
Indiana.  In  many  places  dragon-flies  are  disappearing,  owing  to 
the  drainage  of  their  breeding  places. 

On  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  adults  and  the  interest  at- 
taching to  their  habits,  they  are  becoming  favorite  subjects  for 
collections,  and  there  are  now  a  number  of  earnest  students  of 
the  Odonata  in  this  country.  The  recent  death  of  the  great 
master  of  dragon-fly  science,  Baron  de  Selys-Longchamps,  of 
Belgium,  December  ii,  1900,  has  called  renewed  attention  to 
this  fascinating  group. 

The  nymph  dragon-flies  are  well  adapted  to  aquarium  study. 
They  are  easily  collected  and  easily  kept.  The  debris  at  the  bot- 
tom of  ponds  can  be  brought  up  with  a  rake,  and  the  nymphs 
thus  collected  placed  in  a  bucket  and  carried  home  to  the 
aquarium,  which  should  be  furnished  with  sand  and  aquatic 
plants.  The  best  time  for  collecting  them  is  in  the  spring  and 
early  summer. 


TABLE  OF  FAMILIES 


Wings  alike,   held  vertically  in  repose;   eyes  constricted  at 
base,  peduncled i 

Front  wings  dissimilar  from  hind  wings,  held  horizontally  in 
repose;  eyes  not  peduncled 2 

36S 


Plate  XLI. 
DRAGON    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Micrathyria   beienice  J    (Libellulidae)    Eastern   and    Southern 

coasts  of  U.  S. 

2.  Micrathyria   berenice  ?   (Libellulidas)    Eastern   and   Southern 

coasts  of  U.  S. 
^   Micrathyria   berenice  ?   (Libellulidx)    Eastern    and   Southern 

coasts  of  U.  S. 
4.  y^schna  constricta  ,?  (/^schnidae)  N.  A,,  Kamchatka,  Siberia 
s.  Libellula  exusta  ?  (Libellulidae)   Me.  and  Mass.  to  Vancouver 

Islands,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Ga.,  Fla. 

6.  Libellula  exusta  S  (Libellulidae)  Me.  and  Mass.  to  Vancouver 

Lslands,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Ga.,  Fla. 

7.  Epiaeschna  heros  (^schnidae)  N.  A.,  east  of  Mississippi 

8.  Mesothemis  simplicicollis  £  (Libellulidae)  U.  S..  east  of  Rocky 

Mountains,  Mex.,  W.  I.,  Bahamas 

9.  Mesothemis  simplicicollis?  (Libellulid;^)  U.  S. .  east  of  Rocky 

Mountains,  Max.,  W.  I.,  Bahamas 


The  Insect  Book. 


Dragon-Flies 

I— Wings  with  at  least  five  cross  veins  between  the  first  and 
second  longitudinal  veins  and  before  the  first  break  in  the 

wing  (antecubitals) Family  Calopterygidce 

Wings  with  but  two  such  cross  veins Family  Agrionidce 

2— Antecubitals  of  the  first  and  second  rows  not  meeting  except 
at  base  of  wing , 

Antecubitals  of  first   and   second   rows   running    into    each 
other . 

3— Eyes  wide  apart ¥nm\\y,Gomphidce 

Eyes  touching  at  a  single  point Family  Cordulegasteridce 

Eyes  touching  for  some  distance Family  ^schnidce 

4— Eyes  with  tubercles  behind Family  Cordnlidce 

Eyes  not  tubercled  behind Family  Libellulidce 


369 


DAMSEL-FLIES 

^Family   Caloptciygida.) 

This  family  and  the  following,  the  Agrionidse,  are  by  some 
late  authors  grouped  together,  the  Calopterygidse  being  considered 
simply  of  subfamily  rank  and  called  Calopteryginse.  Both  groups, 
as  pointed  out  in  the  table,  hold  their  wings  vertically  in  repose; 
that  is  to  say  folded  together  over  the  back,  instead  of  spread  out 
horizontally.     They  are  called  by  some  authors  damsel-flies. 

The  species  of  this  family,  and  especially  those  of  the  genus 
Calopteryx,  seem  to  live  preferably  in  wooded  places  along  the 
banks  of  running  streams.  Their  wings  are  frequently  so  dark 
as  to  appear  almost  black,  and  they  have  also  something  of  a 
metallic  lustre.  The  body  is  strikingly  metallic,  and  of  an  irides- 
cent green  and  blue.  The  large  pop  eyes,  which  seem  almost 
stalked  like  those  of  a  crab,  are  characteristic  and  distinctive  of 
this  and  the  following  group.  The  flight  is  not  strong,  and  they 
are  seldom  found  far  from  the  banks  of  the  stream  or  pond  where 
they  were  born  and  where  they  lay  their  eggs. 

We  have  but  two  genera  in  this  family,  namely  Calopteryx 
and  Hetserinu.  The  Hetsrinas  have  clear  wings  which  how- 
ever, sometimes  bear  spots  near  the  tip,  and  in  the  males  have  a 
brilliant  red  area  near  the  base  of  each  wing.  The  Hetserinas 
are  not  woodland  species  like  Calopteryx,  but  are  found  near 
running  water  in  the  open. 


370 


Plate  XLIl. 
DRAGON  FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Pantala  flavescens  (Libellulidae)  Asia,  Africa,  America 

2.  Celithemis  ornata  $  (Libellulidae)  Coast  of  U.  S.  from  Maine 

to  Florida 

3.  Celithemis  ornata  ?  (Libellulidte)  Coast  of  U.  S.  from  Maine 

to  Florida 

4.  Pantala  hymenaea  (Libellulidse)  U.  S.,  Mex.,  Cuba.Galapagas 

Islands 

5.  Sympetrum  corruptum  (Libellulidae)  N.  A.,Ochotsk 

6.  Somatochlora  elongata  v.   minor   (Cordulidse)    Northeastern 

U.  S. 

7.  Macromia  ilinoensis  (CordulidE)  Eastern  U.  S.,  Quebec 

8.  Sympetrum    rubicundum  ?   (Libellulidae)  Eastern  U.   S.  and 

Canada 

9.  Sympetrum    rubicundum  $   (Libellulidse)  Eastern  U.  S.  and 

Canada 


The  Insect  Book. 


FAMILY  AGRIONID^ 

These  are  the  true  damsel  flies,  and  are  the  small,  graceful 
species  with  extremely  slender  bodies  and  narrow,  clear  wings, 
which  are  very  commonly  found  flying  over  large  bodies  of  still 
water,  and  with  which  every  one  who  has  ever  rowed  a  boat  on 
a  fresh  water  lake  must  be  perfectly  familiar.  They  are  found  in 
great  numbers  in  the  reedy  borders  of  the  fresh  water  ponds  and 
lakes  over  the  entire  country.  All  of  our  North  American  species 
are  small,  but  in  tropical  regions  they  grow  to  large  size,  and 
some  South  American  forms  are  among  the  largest  species  of  the 
order  Odonata.  They  do  not  fly  high  in  the  air,  but  frequent 
low-growing  aquatic  vegetation.  The  colors  as  a  rule  are  rather 
dull,  but  the  slender  bodies  of  some  are  brilliantly  blue,  green  or 
even  yellow,  and  sometimes  red. 

The  family  is  a  large  one,  and  about  seventy-five  species  are 
known  in  this  country,  testes  and  Enallagma  are  the  largest 
genera. 


TRUE  DRAGON-FLIES 

(Family  Govipliidce.) 

In  this  family  and  the  following  ones  the  wings  are  held 
horizontally  when  the  insects  are  in  repose;  also  the  eyes  are  not 
pop  eyes.  This  group  is  also  by  late  authors  considered  a  sub- 
family of  the  ^schnidae,  and  is  then  called  Gomphinie.  They 
are  separated  from  their  nearest  allies  from  the  fact  that  their  eyes 
are  widely  separated.  The  species  are  rather  large,  and  with 
certain  forms  the  end  of  the  abdomen  appears  much  swollen, 
especially  in  the  male;  as,  for  example,  in  the  interesting  form 
known  as  Gomphtts  vastus  Walsh. 

Kellicott  says  of  these  dragon-flies :  "Their  habits  are  various. 
Some  are  found  only  about  the  rapid  streams  or  wave-tossed 
lakes;  others  by  reedy  pools;  while  others  haunt  sloughs  mantled 
by  lily  pads.  They  do  not  fly  about  in  apparent  sportiveness,  as 
do  the  Libellulas.  The  females  rest  among  the  adjacent  foliage 
or  on  the  ground  in  some  nearby  pathway,  repairing  at  intervals 
to  the  water's  edge  or  skimming  the  roughened  surface  of  the 
rapid  stream  or  disturbed  lake  for  oviposition.  The  males  rest 
nearer  the  water,  skirt  the  bordering  aquates,  or  explore  the 
water  far  from  shore  in  search  of  the  ovipositing  females. 
Copulation  is  at  rest  in  low  herbage  or  high  up  in  trees.  The 
female  oviposits  unattended  by  the  male,  and  the  eggs  are  washed 
from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  by  repeated  dips  into  the  water 
either  in  some  quiet  nook  among  the  weeds  or  in  other  species 
far  out  on  the  rough  surface  of  swift  stream  or  wind-disturbed 
lake.  Most  species  fly  in  early  summer,  some  in  mid,  and  a  few 
late  in  summer." 


372 


FA  MIL  Y  CORDULEGAS  TERID/E 

This  group  is  also  considered  by  recent  authors  to  be  simply 
a  subfamily  of  the  y^schnidse.  They  resemble  the  species  of  the 
foregoing  group,  but  the  eyes  touch  at  a  single  point  on  the  top 
of  the  head.  They  are  all  large  insects,  and  there  are  compara- 
tively few  of  them  in  the  United  States.  None  of  them  are 
common.  The  colors  are  not  metallic,  but  their  bodies  are 
usually  banded  with  brown  and  yellow,  the  wings  for  the  most 
part  being  nearly  clear. 

Needham  says:  "The  imagos  are  strong  of  flight,  and  are 
oftenest  seen  coursing  back  and  forth  over  some  small  stream, 
flying  on  a  regular  beat,  and  passing  and  repassing  the  same 
point  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes.  The  collector  may  take 
advantage  of  this  habit  and  so  station  himself  that  he  may  reach 
the  specimen  as  it  passes  and  capture  it  if  dexterous  enough  with 
the  net.  The  nymphs  live  on  the  bottom  in  shallow  water, 
buried  in  clean  sand  or  in  vegetable  silt.  Though  buried,  thev 
do  not  burrow,  but  descend  by  raking  the  sand  from  beneath 
them  by  sweeping  lateral  movements  of  the  legs.  When  deep 
enough,  they  kick  the  sand  up  over  the  back  till  only  the  elevated 
tips  of  the  eyes  and  the  respiratory  aperture  at  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  are  exposed.  By  placing  a  live  nymph  in  a  dish  of 
sand  and  water,  and  watching,  its  method  may  be  observed  in  a 
very  few  minutes.  The  whole  comical  performance  reminds  one 
strongly  of  the  descent  of  an  old  hen  in  a  dust  bath."  The  same 
authority  says  that,  when  once  placed,  the  nymph  will  remain 
for  weeks  without  changing  position,  but  when  some  little  insect 
comes  near  it  throws  out  its  jaws  and  captures  it.  One  species 
was  seen  in  the  nymph  stage  to  capture  and  eat  young  brook 
trout  as  long  as  the  nymphs  themselves. 


373 


FAMILY  /ESCHNIDy^ 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  groups  of  dragon-flies,  and  com- 
prises many  of  our  largest  forms.  The  eyes  meet  on  top  of  the 
head.  In  coloration  and  general  appearance  they  are  much  like 
the  preceding  families  but  with  the  majority  of  them  the  wings 
are  generally  clear  with  only  apical  brown  spots  and  sometimes 
they  are  a  little  smoky.  These  large  dragon-flies  are  abundantly 
found  all  through  the  summer.  They  are  among  the  first  to 
appear  in  spring  and  among  the  last  to  disappear  in  the  autumn. 
Their  flight  is  very  strong,  and  the  large  species  are  most  ferocious- 
looking  creatures.  In  fact,  the  largest  and  most  powerful  dragon- 
fly in  the  North  American  fauna  is  Epiceschiia  heros  Fabr.  One 
of  the  commonest  forms  which  may  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  is  Aiiax  Junius  Drury.  On  account  of  the  strong  flight 
of  these  insects  they  are  frequently  found  far  away  from  the 
place  of  their  birth  seeking  their  prey  in  the  fields  and  about  open 
places  in  the  woods,  busying  themselves  continually  in  the  cap- 
ture of  flies  and  even  larger  insects.  The  male  and  female  of 
Aiiax  Junius  ^Mred  art  common  objects  flying  over  the  water. 
The  female  seems  to  prefer  to  lay  her  eggs  in  stagnant  pools  or 
in  ponds  where  the  surface  is  covered  with  duckweed  and  other 
aquatic  plants.  The  female  submerges  her  abdomen  in  laying 
her  eggs.  According  to  Williamson,  this  species  appears  in  large 
and  compact  flocks,  some  of  them  numbering  several  hundred 
individuals,  and  they  pass  back  and  forth  frequently  near  the 
ground  as  twilight  comes  on,  seeking  especially  swarms  of 
midges. 

Six  genera  are  represented  in  this  country,  mostly  the  species 
belonging  to  the  typical  genus  y^schna. 


374 


Plate  XLIII. 
DRAGON    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Tetragoneuria  semiaquea  6   (Cordulidas)    Eastern  U.  S.  and 

Canada 

2.  Libellula  basalis  ,5  (Libellulidse)  Ontario,  U.  S.,  east  of  Rocky 

Mountains 

3.  Libellula  incesta  S  (Libelluiidae)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

4.  Celithemis  eponina$  (Libellulidas)  U.  S.  east  of  Rocky  Mts., 

Cuba 

5.  Libellula  axillena  5  (Libellulidae)  Ga.,  Fla.,  La. 

6.  Libellula  axillena  ?  (Libellulidae)  Ga.,  Fla.,  La. 

7.  Sympetrum  semicinctum  f,  (Libellulidae)  U.  S. 

8.  Tramea  Carolina  i  (Libellulidae)  Mass.  to  Fla. 

9.  Sympetrum  semicinctum  ¥  (Libellulidae)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book. 


Plate  XLIII. 


FAMILY    CORDULIDy^ 

With  this  group  we  approach  the  large  family  Libellulida;, 
the  Cordulidae  being  distinguished  by  possessing  a  single  tubercle 
on  the  hind  border  of  each  eye,  and  in  fact  these  insects  are  by 
most  recent  authors  considered  to  be  simply  a  subfamily  of  the 
Libellulidse,  which  they  resemble  in  most  respects.  They  are 
medium  sized,  or  large  dragon-flies  in  which  the  wings  are  fre- 
quently banded  with  brown,  although  in  some  forms  the  dark 
markings  occur  only  at  the  base  of  the  wings,  and  some  are  entirely 
clear.  The  body  colors  may  be  metallic  or  sordid.  These  insects, 
according  to  Kellicott,  oviposit  by  flying  close  to  the  surface  of 
the  water  striking  the  water  occasionally  with  the  tip  of  the  ab- 
domen to  wash  off  the  eggs. 


375 


dO 


FAMILY  LIBELLULIDy^ 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  dragon-tly  groups  in  the  United 
States,  and  comprises  some  of  the  most  beautiful  species.  With 
many  forms  the  wings  are  beautifully  banded  with  brown,  either 
in  a  series  of  cross  bands  or  with  large  blotches  which  sometimes 
cover  the  basal  half  of  the  wings.  The  abdomens  of  some 
species  are  covered  with  a  whitish  powder-like  substance  which 
is  not  seen  when  the  insects  first  emerge  from  the  nymph,  but 
which,  when  they  grow  old  is  sometimes  so  abundant  as  to  make 
the  abdomen  appear  perfectly  white.  A  characteristic  feature  of 
these  forms,  especially  those  of  the  'typical  genus  Libellula  is 
that  the  abdomen  assumes  the  shape  of  a  prism,  with  a  strong 
sharp  longitudinal  ridge  above  the  flat  sides  and  a  flat  underside. 
In  some  forms  the  wing  markings  are  not  dull  brown,  but 
become  yellowish  and  in  the  very  handsome  and  common 
Libellula  pttlchella,  of  Drury,  the  brown  spots  alternate  with 
milk-white  spots.  They  are  very  abundant  about  stagnant  ponds 
and  such  pools  as  harbor  water-lilies  and  rushes.  They  are 
favorite  food  of  the  king  bird. 

The  females  poise  themselves  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  remaining  almost  motionless  and  striking  the  water  with 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  the  act  of  laying  their  eggs. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Agrionidae  these  are  the  most 
numerous  dragon-flies  in  this  country. 

Needham  says  that  the  nymphs  are  sprawlers  upon  the 
bottom,  mainly  in  shallow  water,  or  clamber  over  fallen  plant 
stems,  and  are  protectively  colored. 

A  single  egg-mass  of  one  of  these  dragon-flies  has  been 
observed  by  Needham  to  contain  1 10,000  eggs. 

Williamson  has  shown  that  one  of  the  species  has  the  habit 
of  resting  on  the  top  of  a  rush,  each  one  being,  apparently, 
proprietor  of  a  certain  territory.  When  another  one  encroaches, 
"he  is  quickly  hustled  away  by  the  rightful  and  irate  owner." 

376 


rii.riMJiJi'.uj  rruj'!)' 


Plate  XLIV. 
DRAGON   FLIES 


FIG. 
I.   BasJEeschna  janata  ^  (/Eschnids)  U.  S 


Libellula  cyanea ,'.  (Libellulidc-e)  Mass.  to  Va. 

Libellula  cyanea  9  (Libellulidas)  Mass.  to  Va. 
4.   Boyeria  vinosa  ,J  (/Eschnid?e)Canada,  Eastern  U.  S..  Ark. 
s.   Leucorhinia    intacta  ,^    (LibellulidiE)   Canada  to  Pa.,   west  to 
S.  Dakota,  Nev.,  Wash. 

6.  Leucorhinia   intacta  5   (L'ibeliulidK)   Canada  to  Pa.,   west  to 

S.  Dakota,  Nev.,  Wash. 

7.  Cordulegaster  maculatus  .?  (Cordulegastridre)  Eastern  U.S. and 

Canada 

8.  Sympetrum  costiferum  i  (Libellulidse)  U.  S. 

9.  Sympetrum  costiferum  ?  (Libellulidse)  U.  S. 


The  Insect  Book 


THE  MAY-FLIES  OR  SHAD-FLIES 

(Order  Epliemerida.) 

The  so-called  May-flies,  or  shad-flies,  are  the  insects  which 
constitute  this  order.  They  are  known  by  one  name  or  the 
other  bv  almost  every  one  who  has  seen  them  swarming  about 
the  electric  lights  during  the  summer  or  who  lives  in  the  vicinity 
of  some  large  watercourse  in  which  these  insects  breed  in  in- 
calculable numbers.  Structurally  speaking,  the  adult  insects  are 
very  interesting  creatures.  They  are  distinguished  from  other 
insects  by  their  short  antennce,  their  extremely  large  front  wings 
as  compared  with  the  very  small  hind  wings,  the  absolutely 
atrophied  mouth-parts  and  the  long,  slender  filaments,  two  or 
three  in  number,  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  transformations 
are  complete  and  the  early  stages  are  always  passed  in  the  water. 

The  larvae  are  active  creatures  with  long,  strong  legs,  and 
breathe  by  means  of  tracheal  gills.  They  both  swim  and 
crawl  and  feed  very  largely  upon  vegetable  matter,  diatoms  and 
confervge  being  found  in  their  stomachs.  They  may  be  found 
under  stones  in  running  streams  or  swimming  among  water 
plants  in  quiet  waters,  or  they  may  live  at  the  bottom  more  or 
less  covered  with  slime  or  mud.  Some  forms  burrow  into  the 
sand-banks  of  rivers.  The  pupa  or  nymph  is  also  active  and 
feeds.  It  has  small  wing  pads,  and,  when  ready  to  transform,  it 
floats  upon  the  water,  and  the  skin  of  the  back  opens  and  the 
winged  insect  flies  out.  The  emergence  is  extremely  rapid  and 
the  insect  flies  away  almost  immediately  after  the  skin  cracks. 
A  very  curious  phenomenon  occurs  with  these  insects  which  is  not 
found  with  any  other  insect,  and  that  is  that  there  is  a  molt  after  the 
fly  issues  from  the  nymph.  It  flies  away  to  the  shores  in  the  con- 
dition called  the  sub-imago  stage  and  again  the  skin  splits  and  the 
true-imago,  or  adult,  issues.  This  shedding  of  the  sub-imago  skin 
is  said  sometimes  to  take  place  while  the  insect  is  flying  in  the  air. 

The  life  of  the  adult  is  short;  in  fact,  these  insects  were 
named  after  the  Ephemerides  of  the  Greek  mythology,  creatures 
which  lived  but  a  day,  and  from  this  root  comes  our  common 
377 


The  May-Flies  or  Shad-Flies 

word,  ephemeral.  But  they  live  longer  than  a  day.  They  do 
not  eat,  since,  as  we  have  stated,  the  mouth-parts  are  atrophied 
and  the  alimentary  canal  is  not  fitted  for  the  digestion  of  food; 
but  it  has  been  shown  that  where  the  air  is  not  too  dry  some  of 
them  can  live  for  several  days.  It  is  stated  that  Curtis  kept  one 
alive  for  three  weeks;  but  in  general  they  die  within  three  or 
four  days,  and  frequently  in  a  few  hours,  or  even  less  time.  The 
males  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  females  from  the  fact 
that  with  the  males  the  hind  legs  only  are  atrophied  or  feeble, 
while  with  most  females  the  fore  legs  as  well  as  the  hind  legs  are 
too  feeble  to  support  the  body.  When  at  rest  the  front  legs  are 
generally  extended  straight  in  front  of  the  head,  and  frequently 
very  close  together,  the  anal  setae  usually  slanting  upwards.  As 
a  rule  they  remain  quiet  during  the  day,  limiting  their  flight  to 
the  cooler  hours  of  sunlight  or  extending  it  later  in  the  evening, 
just  after  sunset.  Where  there  is  a  strong  artificial  light  they  will 
fly  until  late  in  the  night.  The  numbers  in  which  these  creatures 
swarm  are  often  extraordinary.  I  drove  through  a  dense  cloud 
of  them  once  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  in  the 
month  of  June  when  both  the  air  and  the  ground  and  our 
clothes  looked  as  though  the  heaviest  kind  of  a  snow-storm  were 
raging.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  their  bodies  are 
frequently  massed  in  great  windrows  miles  in  length  and  of  a 
very  considerable  thickness. 

Most  of  them  couple  during  flight,  the  male  undermost. 
Egg-laying  is  usually  performed  in  fresh  water,  though  one  exotic 
species  lays  in  brackish  water.  The  females  of  some  species  dis- 
charge the  contents  of  their  ovaries  at  once  in  the  form  of  a  pair 
of  egg-clusters.  These  upon  reaching  the  water  rapidly  disinte- 
grate, and  the  eggs  sink  to  the  bed  of  the  river  or  stream. 
Others  drop  their  eggs  gradually,  a  few  at  a  time,  the  female 
either  alighting  on  the  surface  of  the  water  at  intervals  to  wash 
off  the  eggs  that  have  issued,  or  she  creeps  down  into  the  water, 
enclosed  within  a  film  of  air,  to  lay  her  eggs  on  the  under  side  of 
stones,  after  which  she  floats  up  to  the  surface  and  either  flies 
away  or  is  drowned.  In  one  case  a  female  has  been  seen  to 
deposit  living  larvae. 

These  insects  can  readily  be  bred  in  fresh  water  aquaria,  but 
Eaton  says  that  it  is  important  not  to  grow  Raiiunciiliis  in  the 
aquaria,  because  the  sap  exuding  from  its  broken  stems  appears 
378 


jK)3  .8 


Plate  XLV. 
DRAGON    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Argia  violacea ,?  (Agrionidae)  Me.  to  Va.,  111.,  Tex. 

2.  Argia  sedula  ?  (Agrionidae)  Va..  Tex.,  Ohio,  Ind. 

3.  Argia  sedula  ^  (Agrionidje)  Va.,  Tex.,  Ohio,  Ind. 

4.  Argia  violacea  ?  (Agrionidae)  Me.  to  Va.,  III.,  Tex. 

5.  Libellula   semifasciata  $   (Libellulidae)    Eastern  and  Southern 

U.  S. 

6.  Libellula  auripennis  $  (Libellulidae)  Coast  from  N.  Y.  to  Tex., 

Ohio,  Cuba,  Isle  of  Pines 

7.  Pachydiplax  longipennis  2  (Libellulidae)  N.  A. 

8.  Epicordulia  princeps  6  (Cordulidae)  Quebec  to  Ct.,  Pa.,  Md., 

Ga.,  Mich.,  111.,  Tex. 

9.  Didymops   transversa  3   (Cordulidae)    Quebec  to  Ga.,  Mich. 

Ky.,  Tex. 


The  Imskct  Eoo: 


The  May-Flies  or  Shad-Flies 

to  be  poisonous  to  the  larvae.  After  the  eggs  hatch  the  larvae  live 
upon  mud  or  the  small  vegetation  which  grows  on  stones  and 
the  stems  of  large  water-plants.  Some  of  them  are  apparently 
predaceous.  They  cast  their  skins  several  times  during  the  first 
few  days  after  their  birth. 

These  larvae,  or  nymphs,  as  all  of  the  early  stages  of  the  May- 
flies are  called,  are  very  important  fish  food.  Forbes  has  found 
them  to  be  the  most  important  food  of  the  white  bass,  the 
toothed  herring,  the  shovel-fish  and  the  croppies,  while  the  rock 
bass,  the  common  perch,  the  striped  bass,  the  darters,  the  cat- 
fish, the  suckers,  and  many  other  freshwater  fish  feed  upon  them 
very  largely.  The  writer  has  been  appealed  to  quite  recently  on 
the  subject  of  the  possible  extermination  of  these  insects  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  where  they  cause  so  much  annoyance 
by  their  swarming  flight,  but  their  value  as  food  for  fish  would 
make  such  an  extermination  extremely  undesirable.  The  St. 
Lawrence  is  noted  for  its  fine  fish  and  the  fishing  possibilities 
attract  so  many  summer  visitors  to  its  shores  that  the  tem- 
porary annoyance  of  the  shad-flies  should  joyfully  be  borne. 

The  larval  life  is  a  long  one,  lasting  from  one  to  three  years, 
and  the  number  of  molts  is  very  large.  There  may  be  as  many 
as  twenty.  The  adults,  as  well  as  the  larvae,  are  favorite  fish 
food.  Of  the  swarms  that  issue,  many  meet  their  ultimate  rest- 
ing place  in  the  water,  or  more  strictly  speaking,  in  the  stomachs 
of  fishes.  Fishes  are  so  well  acquainted  with  them  that  imita- 
tion shad-flies  afford  the  best  bait  in  certain  regions.  In  England 
the  so-called  flies  known  as  duns,  drakes,  and  spinners  are  all 
imitations  of  Ephemerids.  Although  so  enormously  numerous  in 
individuals,  the  Ephemerida  is  not  a  large  group  in  number  o( 
species,  and  only  about  three  hundred  have  been  described. 
There  must  be  very  many  more,  however,  and  possibly  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  these  insects  are  preserved  in  collections 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  comparatively  few  have  been  named. 
If  pinned  they  shrivel  up  and  dry  into  such  queer  shapes  that 
the  coloration  and  structural  characters  become  obscure.  Good 
aquarium  studies  for  any  of  our  North  American  species  will  be 
found  to  be  interesting  and  will  be  of  valuable  record. 

A  very  good  table  for  determining  the  nymphs  of  May-flies 
has  been  prepared  by  Needham,  and  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  48  of 
the  New  York  State  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Albany,  1901. 
379 


THE  SPRINGTAILS  AND  FISHMOTHS 

(Order  Thysanura.) 

The  insects  of  this  order  are  usually  of  very  small  size,  and 
are  wingless  and  have  practically  no  metamorphoses.  They  com- 
prise the  little  insects  known  as  springtails,  bristletails,  fishmoths 
or  slickers.  They  have  three  pairs  of  legs,  the  mouth-parts,  often 
hidden,  are  formed  for  biting,  and  the  skin  is  delicate.  The  order 
is  supposed  to  comprise  the  most  generalized  or  simplest  forms 
of  insect  life  and  although  there  is  some  reason  for  considering 
that  they  are  degenerate  insects  the  consensus  of  opinion  is  that 
they  are  living  representations  of  primordial  insects.  Some  of 
them  possess  a  very  remarkable  leaping  arrangement  in  the  shape 
of  a  spring-like  process  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen,  which 
enables  them  to  jump  in  an  extraordinary  way,  some  of  them 
have  long  abdominal  appendages  or  processes  at  the  end  of  the 
body,  and  still  others  have  short  leg-like  processes  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  abdomen.  The  order  as  at  present  understood 
comprises  two  suborders,  namely  the  Cinura  and  the  CoUembola. 
Formerly  some  curious  creatures  belonging  to  the  genus  Scolo- 
pendrella  were  considered  as  belonging  to  this  order  and  were 
placed  in  a  suborder  by  themselves — the  Symphyla — but  it  is 
thought  now  that  these  little  creatures  are  more  closely  related  to 
the  Myriopoda  than  to  the  true  Insecta. 

The  two  remaining  suborders  may  be  separated  as  follows : 

With  bristle-like  and  many-jointed  appendages  or  forceps  at  the 

end  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  composed  often  segments  and 

does  not  possess  a  sucker  on  the  ventral  side 

Suborder  Cinura. 

With  a  forked  sucker  on  the  under  side  of  the  first  abdominal 
segment,  and  the  abdomen,  which  is  composed  of  not  more 
than  six  segments,  furnished  with  a  spring-like  apparatus 
near  the  tip,  or  without  appendages.  ..Suborder  CoUembola. 


380 


Plate  XL VI. 

DRAGON   FLIES 
(reduced  one-third) 

FIG. 

1.  Lestes  forcipatus  $  (Agrionidae)  U.  S. 

2.  Amphiagrion  saucium  $  (Agrionidae)  U.  S. 

3.  Nehalennia  irene  $  (Agrionid;ie)  Eastern  U.  S. 

4.  Enallagma  exsulans  $  (Agrionidae)  Me.,  N.  Y.  to  Va.,  !!L,  Tex. 

5.  Lestes  forcipatus  $  (Agrionidic)  U.  S. 

6.  Amphiagrion  saucium  2  (Agrionidae)  U.  S. 

7.  Nehalennia  posita  ?  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

8.  Enallagma  exsulans  .?  (Agrionidae)  Me.,  N.  Y.  to  Va.,  111.,  Tex. 

9.  Hetaerina  americana  J  (Calopterygida;)  Me.  to  Md.,  west  to 

Wis.  and  Mo. 

10.  Caloptuyxangustipennis  6  (Calopterygidae)  Pa.,  Ohio,  Ky.  Ga. 

11.  Hetaerina  americana  $  (Calopterygidae)  Me.  to  Md.,  west  to 

Wis.  and  Mo. 

12.  Calopteryx  maculata  6  (Calopterygidae)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Can. 

1 3.  Argia  putrida  S  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

14.  Calopteryx  aequabilis  ,?  (Calopterygidae)  Me.,  Mass.,   Eastern 

Canada 

15.  Calopteryx  maculata?   (Calopterygidae)  Eastern  U.  S.,  and 

Canada 

16.  Anomalagrion  hastatum  ?   (black),  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  and 

Southern  U.  S.,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Venezuela,  Galapagos  Is. 

17.  Anomalagrion  hastatum  ?  (orange),  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  and 

Southern  U.  S.,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Venezuela,  Galapagos  Is. 

18.  Anomalagrion  hastatum  ^  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  and  Southern 

U.  S.,  Cuba,  Haiti,  Venezuela,  Galapagos  Islands 

19.  Hetaerina  tricolor  6  (Calopterygidae)  Pa.,  Ga.,  Tex.,  D.  C. 


The  Insect  Book. 


+ 


*f 


IS  ' 


SUBORDER   CINURA 

There  will  be  no  necessity  for  generalizations  regarding  this 
suborder,  aside  from  the  mention  of  the  characters  by  which  it 
is  separated  from  the  Collembola.  In  this  country  it  is  repre- 
sented by  species  belonging  to  three  distinct  families,  which  may 
be  separated  as  follows : 

Mouth-parts  buried  in  the  head i 

Mouth-parts  not  buried Family  Lepismatidce 

I — Anal  end  of  the  body  with  a  pair  of  forceps.  .¥am\\y  J apygidce 

Anal  end  of  body  with  long  antenna-like  processes 

Family  Campodeidce 


381 


FAMILY  LEPISMATID/E 

The  little  insects  which  are  known  to  housekeepers,  particu- 
larly in  the  Southern  States,  as  the  silver  fish,  or  fishmoths,  or 
slickers,  belong  to  this  femily.  They  are  covered  with  scales, 
usually  of  a  silvery  appearance,  and  have  three  long  antenna-like 

X 


Fig.  244. — Lepisma  domestica.     ( Redrawn  from  Marlati.y 

processes  issuing  from  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  These  insects 
are  often  very  troublesome  household  enemies  of  books,  papers, 
starched   clothing,   and   occasionally   stored  foods.      They  also 

3S2 


Springtails  and  Fishmoths 


damage  the  card  labels  in  museums.  They  move  very  rapidly, 
and  make  active  efforts  to  conceal  themselves.  They  shun  the 
light,  and  slip  from  the  fingers  with  ease,  the  silvery  scales  coming 
off  and,  the  insect  escapes  at  the  ex- 
pense of  its  clothing.  In  damag- 
ing the  cloth  bindings  of  books,  it 
is  really  trying  to  feed  upon  the 
paste  with  which  the  cloth  is  stuck 
to  the  boards.  Heavily  glazed 
paper  is  attractive  to  them,  and 
they  will  eat  the  glaze  from  draft- 
ing linen.  They  are  found  com- 
monly in  old  houses  in  rather  damp 
places,  but  one  of  our  species  seems 
to  prefer  the  vicinity  of  fireplaces, 
crawling  rapidly  over  hot  bricks 
and  metal  and  showing  most  sur- 
prising immunity  from  the  effects 
of  high  temperature.  They  are 
readily  destroyed  by  a  free  use  of 
pyrethrum  powder. 

Nothing  is  known  about  their 
life  history.  Their  eggs  have  not 
been  described,  and  of  the  number  of  molts  and  the  rapidity  of 
development  we  are  absolutely  ignorant.  None  of  these  points 
ought  to  be  especially  difficult  to  ascertain. 

Ten  or  more  species  occur  in  the  United  States,  and  those 
which  are  not  found  in  houses  are  generally  found  in  decaying 
wood. 


Fig.  245. — Lepisma  saccharina. 
f  Redrawn  from  Marlati.j 


383 


FAMILY  JAPYGIDy€ 

These  little  creatures  differ  from  the  other  Cinurans  in  the 
possession  of  a  peculiar  forceps-like  structure  at  the  end  of  the 
body.  They  are  slender  in  form,  and  are  found  in  moss  or  in 
shady  places  at  the  edges  of  woods.  They  look  like  young 
earwigs.    Nothing  is  known  of  their  development  or  life  history. 


FAMILY  CAMPODEIDy^ 

These  little  insects  have  elongate  and  cylindrical  bodies,  and 
the  first  seven  of  the  abdominal  segments  bear  each  a  pair  of 
appendages  on  the  under  surface.  We  have  only  three  species 
in  this  country.  They  are  found  in  loose,  damp  earth  in  which 
there  is  much  vegetable  mold. 


Plate  XLVII. 
DRAGON    FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Enallagma  signatum  ?  (Agrionidx)  Eastern  U.  S. 

2.  Ischnura  verticalis  2  (Agrionidse)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

3.  Enallagma  signatum  $  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

4.  Ischnura  verticalis  2  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

5.  Ischnura  verticalis  6  (Agrionidse)  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada 

6.  Argia  apicalis  2  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

7.  Argia  apicalis  S  (Agrionidse)  Eastern  U.  S. 

8.  testes  vigilax  S  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  U.  S. 

q.   testes  rectangularis  (Agrionidas)  Eastern  U.  S. 

10.  Argia    putrida .}   (Agrionidse)    Eastern    U.  S.    and    Canada, 

Southern  U.  S. 

11.  testes  eurinus  3  (AgrionidcT)   111..  N.  Y.,  Me.,  Mass. 

12.  Enallagma  civile?  (Agrionidae)  N.  A. 

I  ^  Argia    putrida  ?   (Agrionidae)     Eastern    U.  S.  and    Canada, 

Southern  U.  S. 
14.  Enallagma  civile  5  (Agrionidge)  N.  A. 

13.  testes  unguiculatus  <?  (Agrionidae)  U.  S.  and  Canada 
16.  Argia  bipunctulata  5  (Agrionidae)  N.  J.  and  Pa.  to  Fla. 


Plate  aLVII. 


SUBORDER  COLLEMBOLA 

This  suborder  is  composed  of  very  minute  insects  which 
possess  the  faculty  of  springing  suddenly,  and  which  when 
alarmed  make  use  of  this  means  of  escaping.  They  are  found  in 
the  spring  in  the  Northern  States  on  bright  sunny  days  when  the 
snow  is  thawing,  frequently  in  great  numbers  on  the  surface  of 
the  snow.  They  are  also  found  on  the  surface  of  water,  in  old 
wells,  and  even  at  considerable  distances  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground  feeding  apparently  upon  vegetable  mold. 

Five  families  are  represented  in  the  United  States,  which 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  table: 

A  ventral  spring  below  the  abdomen i 

No  ventral  spring  below  the  abdomen  ....  Family  Aphoriiridce 

1 — Ventral  spring  on  the  second  from  last  abdominal  segment.  • . . 
Family  Podiiridce 

Ventral  spring  on  the  next  to  the  last  abdominal  segment. .  2 

2— Abdomen  elongate,  cylindrical,  much  longer  than  broad 

Family  Entomobryidce 

Abdomen  globular,  but  little  longer  than  broad 3 

3 — Last  segment  of  the  antennae  long,  ringed 

Family  Smynthuridce 

Last  antennal  segment  short,  with  a  whorl  of  hairs 

Family  Papiriidce 


385 


FAMILY  APHORURID^ 

This  group  is  composed  of  small  insects  which  have  no  ven- 
tral spring.  They  are  soft-bodied,  and  move  slowly,  and  are 
very  seldom  noticed  although  not  uncommon. 


FAMILY  PODURIDy€ 

The  Podurids  are  among  the  most  abundant  of  insects,  al- 
though on  account  of  their  excessively  small  size  they  do  not 
attract  much  attention. 

We  have  something  more  than  a  half  dozen  species  in  this 
country  and  one  of  them,  Achorutes  nivicola,  is  the  form,  as 
one  might  know  from  its  name,  which  is  commonly  found  in  the 
late  spring  upon  the  surface  of  snow. 


Fig.  246. — Lepidocyrtus  americanus.     ( Redrawn  front  Marlatt.) 


They  are  commonly  found  in  deep  soil  which  contains  more 
or  less  soil  humus,  and  have  been  taken  in  a  stiff  clay  subsoil  at 
a  depth  of  six  feet,  but  they  had  probably  penetrated  to  this  depth 
by  following  the  ^path  of  rootlets.  They  are  found  upon  the 
surface  of  water,  on  mushrooms,  and  are  common  among  dead 
leaves  in  the  woods. 

The  eggs  of  one  species  have  been  observed.  They  were 
fifteen  in  number,  spherical,  white,  and  one  one-hundred  and 
eightieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


FAMILY  ENTOMOBRYIDy€ 

The  forms  belonging  to  this  family  are  found  in  the  earth,  in 
caves,  in  greenhouses,  and  in  hothouses,  on  the  bark  of  old  trees, 


Fig.  247. — Lepidocyrtus  americanus.     (After  Marlatt.) 

in  cellars,  under  logs,  and  in  similar  localities.  One  species, 
Lepidocyrtus  americanus  Marlatt,  is  commonly  observed  in 
houses  in  situations  similar  to  those  where  one  finds  the  silver- 
fish  or  slickers.     It  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures. 

The  development  of  none  of  these  insects  is  understood, 
although  the  eggs  of  one  European  species  have  been  recorded  as 
being  laid  in  the  spring. 


.387 


FAMILY  SMYNTHURIDy€ 

These  are  globular-bodied  with  long  four-jointed  antennae. 
The  ventral  spring  is  composed  of  a  basal  portion  and  two  arms. 
We  have  a  half  dozen  or  more  described  species  in  the  United 
States.  They  occur  in  vegetable  mold,  upon  decaying  wood, 
and  feed  upon  the  spores  and  mycelium  of  fungi.  Some  are 
found  upon  aquatic  plants,  and  some  under  stones  in  woods. 
Lubbock,  writing  of  one  of  these  minute  insects,  Smynthiinis 
iuteiis,  says:  "It  is  very  amusing  to  see  these  little  creatures 
coquetting  together.  The  male,  which  is  smaller  than  the  female, 
runs  around  her  and  they  butt  one  another,  standing  face  to  face 
and  moving  backwards  and  forwards  like  two  playful  lambs. 
Then  the  female  pretends  to  run  away,  and  the  male  runs  after 
her,  with  a  queer  appearance  of  anger,  gets  in  front  and  stands 
facing  her  again;  then  she  turns  'round,  but  he,  quicker  and  more 
active,  scuttles  around  too  and  seems  to  whip  her  with  his 
antennae;  then  for  a  bit  they  stand  face  to  fiice,  play  with  their 
antennae,  and  seem  to  be  all  in  all  to  one  another." 


FAMILY  PAPIRIID/E 

These  little  creatures  are  found  in  moss,  and  do  not  seem  to 
be  common,  only  four  species  having  been  recognized  in  the 
United  States. 


388 


Plate  XLVIII. 
DRAGON   FLIES 

FIG. 

1.  Argia  tibialis?  (Agrionidae)  Eastern  and  Southern  U.  S. 

2.  Argia  tibialis  i  (Agnonidx)  Eastern  and  Southern  U.  S. 

3.  Lestes  uncatus  6  (Agrionidae)  U.  S.  and  Canada 

4.  Enallagma  carunculatum  3  (Agrionidae)  Wis.,  Ohio.  111.,  Ind. 
^.  Enallagma  carunculatum  5  (Agrionidae)  Wis.,  Ohio,  111.,  Ind. 

6.  Lestes  congener  3    (Agrionidae)  U.  S. 

7.  Enallagma  traviatum  S  (Agrionidae)  N.  Y.,  Mass.,  Ohio,  Ind.. 

d;  c. 

8.  Enallagma  traiviatum -',  (Agrionidx)  N.  Y.,  Mass.,  Ohio,  Ind., 

D.C. 

9.  Enallagma  calverti  (Agrionidae)  Northern  N.  A. 

10.  Enallagma   antennatum  §   (Agrionidae)    Ohio,   N.   Y.,   Iowa, 

111.,  Ind. 

11.  Enallagma   antennatum  3    (Agrionidae)    Ohio,    N.  Y.,  Iowa, 

111..  Ind. 

12.  Enallagma  aspersum  S  Eastern  U.  S. 

1 3.  Enallagma  durum  6  Eastern  U.  S.  and  Canada,  Southern  U.  S. 

14.  Erythromma  conditum  ?  Eastern  U.  S.  south  to  D.  C. 

15.  Erythromma  conditum  3  Eastern  U.  S.  south  to  D.  C. 


The  Insect  Book*. 


COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING 
INSECTS 

COLLECTING  APPARATUS 

The  old-fashioned  entomologist  used  to  go  out  armed  simply 
with  a  net,  and  pin  his  captures  to  the  top  or  brim  of  his  hat. 
Some  of  the  modern  entomologists  go  into  the  field  laden  down 
with  all  sorts  of  apparatus — a  large  haversack  filled  with  boxes 
and  bottles,  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  nets,  and  with  pockets 
bulging  with  hatchet,  trowel,  saw,  forceps,  knives  and  other 
small  things.  It  is  just  as  bad  for  an  entomologist  to  go  out  laden 
down  in  this  way  as  it  is  for  soldiers  to  take  long  marches  with 
unnecessary  impedimenta.  As  a  rule  one  should  go  out  after  one 
class  of  objects,  prepared,  however,  to  capture  other  interesting 
specimens,  and  he  should  take  with  him  as  prime  necessities  one 
net  (and  a  proper  sweeping  net  is  the  most  useful),  one  or  two 
cyanide  bottles  for  killing  specimens,  a  few  small  pill  boxes  and 
a  few  assorted  vials  containing  dilute  alcohol  or  formalin,  and 
that  is  really  all  that  is  necessary,  unless  he  is  after  aquatic  insects 
or  those  which  live  in  old  logs  or  in  trunks  or  branches  of  trees, 
in  which  case  a  water  net  or  a  hatchet  will  be  necessary.  Most 
collecting  apparatus  can  be  purchased  from  dealers  in  such  things. 
The  following  firms  issue  price  lists  which  may  be  had  on  appli- 
cation, viz:  Queen  &  Co.,  Inc.,  loio  Chestnut  St.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.;  A.  Smith  &  Sons,  269  Pearl  St.,  New  York  City;  John 
Akhurst,  78  Ashland  Place,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  The  Kny-Scheerer 
Co.,  17  Park  Place,  New  York  City;  American  Entomological 
Co.,  1040  DeKalb  Avenue,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Noyes  Bros,  and 
Cutler,  396  Sibley  St.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

The  Net. — There  are  three  main  kinds  of  nets — the  light 
butterfly  net,  the  strong  beating  or  sweeping  net  and  the  water 
net.     The  butterfly  net,  which  is  a  very  handy  one  for  catching 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


flies,  dragon-flies.ant-Iions,  scorpion-flies  and  similar  insects  with 
more  or  less  fragile  wings,  is  made  in  a  number  of  different  ways 

and  several  excel- 
lent ones  are  for 
sale  by  dealers 
above  mentioned. 
A  fairly  satisfactory 
one  can  be  made  at 
^  t'  I  home  in  thefollow- 

ingmanner:  Bend  a 
strong  piece  of  iron 
wire  into  circular 
shape,  the  ends 
being  abruptly  bent 


Fig.  248.— The  butterfly  net  frame. 
(After  Riley.) 


Fig.  249. — The 

Sanbom  net 

frame. 

down  at  right 
angles  so  as  to  fit 
into  two  grooves 
cut  in  the  end  of  a 
walking  stick,  to 
which  they  are  per- 
manently fastened 
by  a  copper  wire. 
A  pointed  net  of 
silk  gauze,  tarleton 
or    Swiss,    a    thin 

Fig.  250.— Beating  net,  opened  and  attached  to  handle,    light  quality   being 
with  frame  of  same  folded.     ( After  Kiesenwetter.)       yggj    is  then  Sewn 

around  the  wire  frame  which  should  previously  be  covered  with 
some  heavier  cloth. 

390 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


The  Sweeping  or  Beating  Net. — Very  many  insects  feed  or 

rest  upon  grasses  and  low  plants,  and  the  beating  net,  which  is 

made  on  the  same  principle  as  the  butterfly  net,  is  a  most  useful 

instrument  with  which  to  collect 

these  forms.      It  should  have  a 

strong  frame   and   the   cloth   of 

which  it  is  composed  should  be 

light  in    color  and   strong   like 

cheese  cloth.      The  beating  net 

is   not   necessarily   pointed    but 

may  be  rounded  at  the  bottom. 

The    collector    passes    the    net 

several   times   quickly   over  the 

low  shrubbery  or  grass  and  then 

sits  down  to  examine  his  cap- 
tures  and  remove  them  to  the 

cyanide  bottle.     The  ring  of  the 

beating  net  should  be  especially 

strong,  either  of  brass  or  iron  and 

of  one  or  two  pieces  and  should 

be  fastened  rigidly  to  the  handle 

either  by    means    of   a   special 

device,    by    clamps,    nuts    and 

screws,   or  by   copper  wire  as 

above  mentioned.     The  reason  for  this  special  strength  is  that 

sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  sweep  tough  bushes   or  the   low 

branches  of  trees. 

The  Water  Net. — The  water  net  may  be  a  simple  sag  net 
with  a  short  handle,  the  frame  being  oblong 
and  the  net  or  bag  being  of  some  very  coarse 
material  like  grass  cloth  or  miliinet.  A  sieve 
net  with  sides  of  galvanized  iron  and  bottom 
of  galvanized  wire  screen  is  desirable  where 
one  is  scraping  up  mud  and  sand  from  the 
bottom  of  pools  for  the  purpose  of  sifting  out 
aquatic  insects. 

The  Sieve. — A  sieve  with  cloth  sides  is 

an    excellent    bit    of    apparatus     for    sifting   out  earth,  moss, 

materials    of   ants    nests,  etc.,  the  size    of    the    wire   meshes 

at    the    bottom    being    larger   when   it   is   desired   to  sift  the 

39' 


Fig.  251. — A  good  hand  net. 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


fragments  of  old  decayed  trees  and  smaller  when  sifting  ants  nests 
and  ordinary  earth. 

Chisel  and  Trowel. — A  small  stout  chisel  for  securing  insects 
which  hide  under  the  bark  of  dead  or  dying  trees  is  a  useful  in- 
strument. A  stout  pocket  knife  will  sometimes  do  the  work  but 
something  stronger  and  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  is  desirable. 
When  one  is  studying  underground  insects  a  small  trowel  is  a 
necessity. 

Collecting  Forceps. — The  entomologist  skilled  in  the  use  of 
his  fingers  and  who  does  not  mind  an  occasional  sting  or  bite 
does  not  need  forceps,  yet  a  small  delicate  pair  made  of  steel  or 
brass,  very  pliable  and  with  rounded  tips,  is  useful  in  picking  up 
specimens  and  transferring  them  into  vials  and  boxes.  A  little 
dodge  which  is  used  by  many  entomologists  in  picking  up  small 
insects  is  to  slightly  moisten  the  fore  finger  and  touch  it  to  the 
insect  which  will  adhere  long  enough  so  that  it  can  be  dropped 
into  the  cyanide  bottle,  vial  or 
pill  box.  A  camel's-hair  brush  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Fnmigator. — This  is  a  bit  of 
apparatus  used  by  European 
collectors  and  to  some  extent 
by  those  in  this  country,  it  is 
used  for  smoking  out  specimens 
which  hide  in  cracks  in  the 
ground  or  holes  in  hard  wood, 
etc.  The  accompanying  figure 
shows  the  common  form.  A 
smoking-pipe  mouth-piece  (a) 
with  flexible  rubber-joint  {p)  is 
attached  to  the  cover  (r)  of  a 
very  large  smoking  pipe  head 
(d).  To  the  mouth  {e)  of  the 
latter  a  rubber  hose  (/)  is  at- 
tached, which  has  a  convenient 
discharge  at  its  end  {g).  The 
pipe  is  filled  with  tobacco,  the  latter  ignited,  the  cover  screwed 
on  and  the  smoke  blown  through  the  mouth-piece  in  any  desired 
direction.      A  puff  of  tobacco   smoke   blown  gently   over  the 

39- 


Fig.  253. — The  fumigator. 
(After  Kieseniueticr.) 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


debris  on  the  collecting  cloth  will 
often  make  many  specimens 
move  which  otherwise  play 
possum. 

Haversack. — A  haversack  of 
water-proof  cloth  is  convenient 
but  by  no  means  indispensable. 
It  should  contain  various  com- 
partments of  different  sizes  for 
storing  away  nets,  sieve,  larger 
implements,  boxes  and  vials. 

Hand  Lens. — A  hand    lens 
is  quite  necessary  for  field  work 
.^^  ^   with    the   smaller  forms.      Ex- 

Fig.  2S4.— An  entomological  haversack,  cellent  hand  lenses  are  now  on 
the    market   and    can    be   pur- 
chased from  any  dealer  in  microscope  supplies. 

Umbrella. — 
The  umbrella  is 
one  of  the  most 
useful  imple- 
ments to  the 
collector  since 
he  can  collect 
with  it  insects 
which  live  upon 
the  branches  of 
trees  and  large 
bushes.  Umbrel- 
las constructed 
especially  for  en- 
tomological pur- 
poses have  the 
inside  lined  with 
white  linen  and 
the  handle  has 
a  joint  near  the 
middle  so  that  it 
can  be  more  con- 
veniently     held 


-Ihe  umbrella  and  its  mode  of  use. 
(After  Kiescnwcttcr.J 


393 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

and  more  conveniently  packed  away.  The  opened  and  in 
verted  umbrella  is  held  with  the  left  hand  under  the  branch 
and  with  the  right  hand  the  collector  beats  the  branch,  jarring 
the  insects  into  the  convex  umbrella  cover. 

Collecting  Shears. — These  are  often  used,  the  blades  being 
composed  of  flat,  net-like  frames  looking  something  like  minute 
tennis  rackets.  They  are  useful  for  picking  up  delicate  insects 
which  would  be  apt  to  be  damaged  by  the  fingers  or  tweezers. 


SOME  POINTS  ON  METHODS  OF  COLLECTING 
DIFFERENT  ORDERS 

Hymenoptera. — Many  Hymenoptera,  such  as  the  bees,  some 
of  the  wasps  and  many  parasitic  forms,  can  readily  be  collected 
by  means  of  the  beating  net  or  sweeping  net  from  flowering 
plants.  The  removal  of  the  stinging  species  from  the  net  is 
sometimes  rather  dangerous.  The  callous  collector  will  pick 
them  up  with  his  thumb  and  fore  finger,  never  minding  the 
sting,  especially  as  after  a  few  stings  his  hand  becomes  practically 
inoculated,  but  a  good  idea  is  to  have  an  opening  ^in  the  bottom 
of  the  net  which  should  be  kept  tied  with  a  string.  When 
enough  insects  are  caught  they  are  driven  to  the  bottom  by 
swinging  the  net  rapidly  through  the  air,  then  holding  it  tightly 
together  with  the  hand  just  above  the  bottom,  untieing  the 
string  and  shaking  the  insects  into  a  wide-mouthed  cyanide 
bottle.  After  they  are  stupefied  the  contents  of  the  bottle  may 
be  emptied  out  and  the  desirable  specimens  selected.  The  gall- 
flies and  the  parasites  are  best  collected  by  breeding.  The  galls 
of  the  gall-flies  should  be  collected  when  mature  and  kept  in 
closed  jars,  the  jars  being  occasionally  moistened  by  putting  a 
sheet  of  damp  blotting  paper  over  the  mouth. 

Hemiptera. — The  beating  net  is  used  with  these  insects  and 
they  are  found  to  some  extent  under  logs  and  stones  and  are  also 
captured  in  the  collecting  umbrella.  Plant-lice  should  be  collected 
in  connection  with  their  food  plants  and  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year  in  order  to  obtain  different  generations.  One  should 
also  collect  both  winged  and  wingless  forms.  Bark-lice  or  scale 
insects  should  be  preserved  dry  in  situ  on  the  plants.  The  col- 
lector should  have  a  series  of  small  envelopes  or  flat  card  boxes 
394 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

in  which  to  plnce  these  specimens,  writing  the  d;ite,  locality, 
name  of  plant,  collector,  and  any  other  remarks  that  may  seem 
desirable.  Nothing  air-tight,  such  as  tin  boxes  or  closed  tubes, 
should  be  used  for  fresh  material  as  it  nearly  always  molds.  Pill- 
boxes are  sometimes  used  but  are  too  small  to  contain  a  good 
quantity  of  material.  A  good-sized  twig  or  several  leaves  should 
be  collected  for  each  species. 

Diptera. — Most  flies  frequent  flowers  and  may  be  collected 
with  the  sweeping  net.  So  many  of  them  are  very  delicate  that 
the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  both  in  collecting  and 
handling.  A  light  sweep  net  is  the  best  implement  and  the  con- 
tents should  frequently  be  emptied  into  cyanide  bottles  with  plenty 
of  blotting  paper  to  absorb  the  excess  of  moisture.  Collecting 
shears  are  successfully  used  with  these  insects. 

Orthoptera. — These  insects  are  best  collected  by  using  the 
sweeping  net. 

Collecting  Aquatic  Insects. — For  collecting  forms  which  live 
upon  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  streams.  Dr.  Needham  advises  the 
use  of  the  common  garden  rake.  With  it  the  debris  may  be 
drawn  ashore  and  the  insects  picked  out  by  hand.  Withdrawn 
from  the  water  they  generally  make  themselves  evident  by  their 
active  efforts  to  get  back.  The  rake  is  especially  useful  in  the 
spring  while  there  is  as  yet  no  new  growth  of  well-rooted  water 
weeds  to  interfere  with  hauling  it.  The  sieve  net  previously 
described  fs  used  for  bringing  ashore  mud  and  sand  from  the 
bottom.  Those  specimens  which  live  above  the  bottom  in  still 
or  slowly  running  water  or  which  crawl  among  the  submerged 
branches  or  erect  aquatic  plants  are  most  of  them  easily  taken  by 
sweeping  the  plants  with  any  of  the  forms  of  water  nets.  Some 
of  the  little  ones  which  cling  closely  to  the  water  plants  can  only 
be  discovered  by  taking  the  plants  out  of  the  water  and  examining 
them,  a  small  bunch  at  a  time,  in  a  white  dish  of  clean  water. 
Those  forms  which  live  in  rapids  can  be  had  by  picking  up  the 
stones  and  examining  them.  Some  may  be  taken  with  a  water 
net.  Some  are  captured  by  wading  into  the  rapids  holding  the 
water  net  with  the  left  hand  and  lifting  the  stones  in  advance 
with  the  rake,  the  disloged  insects  floating  into  the  water 
net. 

In  carrying  home  a  day's  catch  a  large  quantity  of  water  is 
not  necessary.     Needham  says  that  it  is  well  to  have  a  pail  and  to 

395 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

place  within  it  a  few  smaller  receptacles  containing  a  little  water 
and  pack  ordinary  water  weed  between  these.  The  smaller 
nymphs  taken  may  be  distributed  among  these  receptacles  so  as 
to  diminish  the  chances  of  having  them  eaten  by  the  larger  and 
stouter  ones  which  may  be  stowed  away  in  the  weed.  The 
latter  does  not  need  to  be  submerged  unless  left  long  uncovered 
in  the  sun. 


REARING  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF   INSECTS 


Even  the  collector  of  insects  who  cares  little  about  habits  and 
life  histories  desires  often  to  rear  his  specimens,  since  they  are 
then  in  the  best  condition  for  the  collection;  and  then,  too,  it  is 

very  difficult  sometimes 
to  capture  some  kinds  of 
insects, or  they  can  be  ob- 
tained only  in  this  way. 
The  methods  of  rear- 
ing caterpillars  in  order 
to  obtain  the  adult  but- 
terflies or  moths  has  been 
admirably  treated  by 
Dr.  Holland  in  his  "But- 
terfly Book,"  and  the 
breeding  cages  recom- 
mended by  him  may 
be  used  equally  well  for 
many  of  the  insects  de- 
scribed in  this  volume. 
The  simplest  form  of 
such  cage  is  frequently 
the  best,  and,  as  Dr. 
Holland  says,  with  some 
species  the  best  method 
is  simply  to  pot  a  plant 
on  which  the  insect  is 
known  to  feed  and  place  it  in  a  box  over  which  some  mosquito 
netting  is  tied.  Glass  cylinders  or  even  lamp  chimneys  placed 
over  small  plants  growing  in  pots,  the  top  being  covered  with 
396 


Fig.  256. — Riley  insect  breeding  cage  or 
vivarium.     (After  RiUy.) 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

gauze,  are  frequently  used  to  advantage  in  this  wori<,  and  glass 
jars — from  the  small  test-tube  to  the  large  morphine  bottles  and 
fruit  jars  and  up  to  the  large  ^battery  jars — all  may  be  used  in 
rearing  different  kinds  of  insects.  The  large,  so-called  Riley 
breeding  cage,  shown  at  Figure  256,  is  a  good  one,  especially  if 


Fig.  257. — Comstock  improved  base  for  breeding  cage.     (After  Riley.) 


it  is  used  with  the  improved  base  invented  by  Professor  Com- 
stock, shown  at  Figure  257.  Some  very  good  breeding  jars  are 
sold  by  the  dealers  in  entomological  supplies,  but  most  workers 
prefer  to  construct  their  own  cages. 

All  earth  used  in  rearing  insects  in  the  cages  or  in  the  bottles 
should  be  sterilized  and  sifted.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to 
destroy  disease  germs,  in  order  subsequently  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  moisture,  and  in  order  to  destroy  predaceous  mites 
and  other  insects  which  might  be  the  cause  of  damage  or  con- 
fusion. In  my  office  we  prepare  earth  readily  and  in  bulk  in  a 
galvanized  iron  oven  2)4  x  \}4  x  i  foot.  The  cover  is  roof- 
shaped,  and  lifts  off  by  a  central  handle.  There  is  a  circular 
orifice  in  this  cover  to  emit  steam  and  facilitate  drying.  The  oven 
stands  on  legs  and  is  heated  by  a  single  gas  jet  from  a  Bunsen 
burner  placed  beneath.  After  two  hours'  heating  the  moisture 
becomes  dissipated,  and  the  earth  becomes  dry  and  is  readily 
sifted.  It  is  then  passed  through  a  sieve,  and  is  in  proper  condi- 
tion to  use  either  in  large  boxes  for  underground  insects  or  in  the 
ordinary  breeding  jars  and  cages. 
397 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

Professor  Comstock  has  invented  and  described  a  root-cage 
in  order  to  study  underground  insects.  This  is  a  metal  cage 
with  glass  sides,  made  narrow,  and  with  galvanized  iron  additional 
sides  which  can  be  slipped  down  over  the  glass  ones  so  as  to 
keep  the  cage  dark  when  not  under  observation.  Plants  and 
insects  are  placed  in  earth  between  the  two  glass  sides,  and  the 
whole  apparatus  is  then  placed  in  the  ground.  It  can  be  pulled 
up  and  the  insects  watched  through  the  glass. 

For  insects  feeding  upori  grasses  it  is  well  to  make  a  wooden 
box  two  feet  deep  with  bottom  perforated  with  a  few 
auger  holes  covered  with  wire  netting  and  containing  a  good 
supply  of  growing  grass.  The  box  should  be  of  good  size,  say 
2X2X2  feet.  Little  upright  posts  or  sticks  or  laths  six  inches 
high  should  be  nailed  to  the  corners  of  the  box,  and  gauze  mos- 
quito netting  or  something  finer  tacked  over  the  whole.  This 
kind  of  a  box  is  of  good  service  in  rearing  grasshoppers,  which 
are  the  most  difficult  insects  to  rear.  Confined  in  a  small 
breeding  cage  they  feed  little,  and  are  apt  to  fatally  exhaust 
themselves  in  futile  efforts  to  escape.  Boxes  for  these  insects 
should  be  about  three  feet  square,  and  in  the  earth  should  be 
growing  not  only  grasses  but  also  weeds  of  various  kinds.  The 
long-horned  grasshoppers  (Locustidse)  are  very  easy  to  rear  in 
confinement,  and  need  only  be  given  an  occasional  supply  of 
fresh  food.  This  is  the  case  also  with  the  walking-sticks,  and 
mantids,  the  latter  requiring  no  moisture  whatever  beyond  that 
which  they  get  from  the  bodies  of  their  victims. 

That  reminds  me  that  one  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
the  rearing  of  insects  is  the  proper  maintenance  of  the  right  de- 
gree of  moisture.  Galls  of  all  kinds  are  apt  to  be  left  either  too 
dry,  in  which  case  the  issuing  of  the  insect  is  delayed  far  beyond 
the  normal  time,  or  too  moist,  in  which  case  they  become  covered 
with  mildew  and  spoil.  If  the  jar  containing  them  be  left  open 
they  dry  no  matter  how  frequently  sprinkled.  If  it  be  closed 
mildew  frequently  puts  in  its  appearance.  This  difficulty  is  ob- 
viated by  keeping  them  in  a  series  of  jars  of  the  same  height,  the 
mouths  of  the  jars  being  covered  with  gauze  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  insects  or  parasites.  Over  the  whole  series  is  laid  a 
large  sheet  of  blotting  paper  which  is  moistened  daily  and  the 
insects  seem  to  thrive  under  this  treatment.  In  rearing  Hymen- 
opterous  parasites,  the  breeding  jar  should  be  tightly  closed  and 
398 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

an  occasional  strip  of  moistened  blotting  paper  inserted  or  they 
may  be  enclosed  in  glass  tubes  witli  tight  absorbent  stoppers  the 
latter  being  occasionally  moistened.  Bees  need  very  little  mois- 
ture and  give  very  little  trouble  in  rearing.  Wood-boring  in- 
sects of  all  kinds  may  as  a  rule  be  kept  perfectly  dry  or  only 
moistened  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Plant-bugs  need  simply 
plenty  of  fresh  food  and  take  care  of  themselves  with  compara- 
tive indifference  as  to  their  surroundings. 

Of  all  larvae  none  are  more  difficult  to  rear  than  those  of  the 
the  saw-flies.  Their  mouth-parts  seem  to  dry  unless  constantly 
lubricated  by  the  saliva  produced  by  mastication  and  once  dried 
the  larva  usually  dies.  Fresh  food  must  constantly  be  supplied 
and  if  possible  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  descend  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  sand;  the  latter  must  be  carefully  covered  with 
paper,  for  if  they  once  close  their  prolegs  on  a  grain  of  sand 
they  hold  it  convulsively  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  dislodge 
it  so  that  they  are  practically  unfitted  for  again  clasping  a 
twig. 

The  study  of  scale  insects  is  a  simple  one.  The  food  plants 
should  be  grown  in  pots  and  the  insects  colonized  upon  it. 
iVlost  of  the  species  remain  stationary  or  nearly  so  and  their  loca- 
tion recorded,  the  exact  situation  of  each  individual  under 
observation  being  circumscribed  by  a  ring  of  ink  marked  with  a 
pen  upon  the  leaf 

The  Aquarhtm. — Almost  any  of  the  different  styles  of 
aquaria  which  may  be  purchased  will  answer  a  good  purpose. 
A  very  good  one  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  go  rather  thoroughly  into  the  rearing  of 
aquatic  insects  and  where  one  is  able  to  spend  some  money  in 
preparations,  the  apparatus  in  use  in  my  office  is  rather  better 
than  anything  which  I  have  seen.  Two  glass  aquaria  each 
2}ixi}4  X  i}4  are  placed  end  to  end,  the  one  elevated  on  a  three 
inch  base  so  as  to  make  it  that  much  higher  than  the  other.  The 
water  connections  from  the  one  to  the  other  are  so  arranged  that 
each  may  be  independent  of  the  other,  and  the  details  are  simply 
arranged.  In  each  is  a  V-shaped  inclined  glass  septum  with  a 
broad,  deflexed  lip,  and  beneath  this  lip  has  been  constructed  an 
artificial  rock-work  grotto.  The  water  enters  the  first  aquarium 
through  a  T  sprinkler  with  six  pipette  orifices.  It  drops  a  distance 
of  six  or  eight  inches  into  the  V-shaped  septum  and  its  force  is 

399 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

easily  graduated  by  stop  cocks.  Rising  to  the  height  of  the  de- 
flexed  lip  it  pours  in  a  broad  cascade  into  the  main  compartment, 
impinging  on  the  top  of  the  rock-work  grotto.  The  second  or 
lower  aquarium  is  at  present  similarly  arranged,  and  derives  its 
supply  of  water  either  from  the  overflow  of  the  first  or  independ- 
ently from  an  overhead  pipe,  so  that  its  water  may  be  kept  either 
still  or  running  at  will.     Thus  we  have  arrangements  in  a  small 


13 
Fig.  258.  — A  good  simple  aquarium 

space  for  the  rearing  of  all  kinds  of  aquatic  insects.  The  sliding 
stream  upon  the  artificial  rockwork  is  particularly  adapted  for  such 
forms  as  Simulium,  and  opportunity  is  also  offered  for  such 
species  as  have  the  habit  of  crawling  out  either  on  rocks  or 
earth,  as  the  case  may  be. 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


KILLING  AND   PRESERVING   INSECTS 


.Sffl  /  s 


W\ 


The  use  of  alchohol  or  formalin  is  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  killing  most  soft-bodied  insects.  Those  with  harder 
bodies  should  be  dropped  into  a  cyanide  bot- 
tle or  they  may  be  killed  with  chloroform. 

The  Cyanide  Bottle. — The  cyanide  bottle 
is  prepared  by  taking  a  large  quinine  bottle  or 
morphine  bottle  or  one  of  the  stout  round- 
bottomed  neckless  tubes,  putting  into  it  a  few 
small  lumps  of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  pour- 
ing over  them  a  semi-fluid  mixture  of  plaster 
of  paris  and  water.  The  bottle  is  then  left 
open  for  a  few  hours  until  the  plaster  of  paris 
thoroughly  dries.  The  purpose  of  the  plaster 
is  to  prevent  the  moisture  from  the  deliquescing 
cyanide  from  reaching  the  insects  and  it  is 
well  also  to  put  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  over 
the  plaster.  When  one  is  collecting  insects  it 
would  be  well  to  cut  into  strips  some  soft 
absorbent  paper  and  stick  the  slips  into  the 
bottle  in  such  a  way  that  the  insects'  bodies 
will  not  rattle  about  too  much. 

Preparing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet. — In 
mounting  insects  for  the  cabinet  no  pins 
should  be  used  except  those  made  especially 
for  mounting  specimens.  The  long  German 
pins  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  short  Eng- 
lish ones.  The  best  are  the  Klaeger  pins,  the 
Carlsbad  pins  and  the  Vienna  pins,  all  of 
which  can  be  purchased  from  the  dealer  in 
entomological  supplies.  The  Japanned  black  pins  are  the  best  for 
most  insects  since  they  are  not  ruined  by  the  verdigris  which 
issues  from  the  bodies  of  many  insects.  Specimens  should  be 
prepared  for  the  collection  as  soon  after  death  as  possible.  If 
they  have  been  collected  in  the  forenoon  they  should  be 
mounted  the  same  evening — where  possible.  Most  of  the  in- 
sects which  we  consider  in  this  book  should  be  pinned  through 
the  thorax.  Grasshoppers  and  locusts  should  have  one  pair  of 
wings  spread.  Dragon-flies  and  most  other  Neuropterous  insects 
401 


Fig     259  —  Pocket 
cyamde  bottle. 
(After  RiUy.) 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 


Fig.  260. — Spreading  board  for 
Lepidoptera.     (After  Kiley.) 


should  have  both  pairs  of  wings  spread.  For  this  purpose  a 
spreading  board  is  necessary. 
Excellent  spreading  boards  are 
for  sale  by  the  dealers  but  very 
good  ones  can  readily  be  made. 
The  spreading  board  in  use  for 
Lepidoptera  will  answer  admir- 
ably for  any  of  these  insects. 
One  is  shown  at  Fig.  260  and 
needs  no  extended  description 
except  to  state  that  the  central 
grove  in  which  the  body  of  the 
insect  rests  should  be  bottomed  with  cork  or  some  soft  sub- 
stance into  which  the  pin  can  be  inserted. 
While  spreading,  the  time  required  for 
drying  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment for  a  given  locality  and  given  time 
of  the  year  since  it  depends  upon  the 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere. 

Insects  which  are  too  small  to  pin 
are  preferably  mounted  upon  little  trian- 
gular cardboard  tags.  They  are  glued 
to  the  tip  of  the  triangle,  the  pin  being 
thrust  through  the  base.  White  shellac 
or  yellow  shellac  are  good  substances  to 
use  for  the  glueing.  Most  of  those  minute 
insects  may  be   mounted  to   advantage  on  the  side  with   the 

back  away  from  the  pin, 
and    it  is  generally   ad- 
visable  to  mount  them 
with    the    side     upper- 
most.    It    must   be    re- 
membered that  while  an 
insect  has  one  back  and 
one    belly    it    has    two 
sides.     Punches  for  cut- 
ting tags  for  this  purpose 
may  be  purchased  from 
the  dealers.     After   the   insect  is   pinned   and   dried   great  care 
should  be  taken  with  the  labelling.     In  all  cases  the   date  and 
402 


Fig.  261. — Insect 
mounted  on  card- 
board triangle.  (After 
Riley.) 


Fig.  262. — Insect  punch  for  cutting  triangles  or 
points.     (After  Riley.) 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

the  actual  locality  should  be  entered  upon  the  label,  and,  if  the 
locality  is  such  that  there  is  some  doubt  that  the  elevation  can 
in  future  be  ascertained  with  ease,  the  elevation  should  be  also 
placed  upon  the  label.     The  name  of  the  collector  should  be  stuck 
on  the  same  pin,  and  the  name  of  the  in- 
sect upon  another  label  on  the  same  pin.    T|        f]       f)       F] 
That  will  make  three  labels,  one  with  the    ||         y        (j       [j 
name,  one  for  the  collector,  and  one  for  the  Fig-   263.— Points   for 
exact  locality  and  date.     All  labels  should       "75"^.^^.^"; 
be    as    small  as  possible,    and   should   be 
printed  in  diamond  type.     After  the  labelling  is  done  the  speci- 
mens are  ready  for  the  cabinet. 

The  Cabinet.— \n  the  matter  of  a  cabinet  there  is  consider- 
able room  for  the  judgment  of  a  collector.  The  so-called  Schmidt 
insect  box  is  an  excellent  box  for  a  more  or  less  temporary  col- 
lection, and,  in  fact,  there  are  many  specimens  in  the  museums 
which  have  been  preserved  in  these  boxes  for  many  years. 
They  are  of  small  and  convenient  size,  book  form,  cork-lined, 
tightly  constructed,   and  close  very  tightly.     An  insect  cabinet 


MS 


Fig.  264.— The  Marx  tray  for  alcohol  specimens.     (After  RiUy.) 


with  sliding  drawers,  glass-covered,  can  be  made  by  any  good 
carpenter,  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  joints  of 
the  drawers  absolutely  air-tight.  When  a  collection  becomes 
infested  with  museum  pests  or  mites  or  Psocids,  it  can  easily  be 
disinfected  by  pouring  into  the  box  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Great 
care  must  be  used  in  the  handling  of  this  substance,  however,  as 
it  is  inflammable.  After  the  drawer  has  become  disinfected,  a 
teaspoonful,  more  or  less,  of  naphthaline  will  act  as  a  deterrent 
against  the  entrance  of  other  insect  pests.  For  soft-bodied 
insects  which  must  be  kept  in  liquid,  either  alcohol  or  formalin, 
a  permanent  arrangement  is  a  very  difficult  matter.  A  vial-tray 
in  use  by  some  collectors  is  a  good  idea.  The  one  invented  and 
40J 


Collecting  and  Preserving  Insects 

used  by  Dr.  George  Marx  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure. 
In  mounting  insects  for  the  microscope  Canada  balsam  is  the 
best  medium  for  most  of  them,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
with  soft-bodied  forms  fresh  mounts  will  cloud  unless  the  water 
has  been  extracted  by  passing  through  successive  strengths  of 
alcohol. 


404 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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europaischer    Gattungen,     der    Beschreibung 
aller  in    Deutschland    vorkommenden    Arten 
und  der  Aufzahlung  aller  bishner  beschrieben- 
en  europaischen  Arten.  2  vols.    Wien,  1862-64. 
Although  dealing  with  the  European  fauna,  tliis 
work  is  very  useful  on  account  of  the  analytic 
tables  of  families  and  genera. 
H.    LoBW    and    C.  R.    Osten   Sacken.— Mono- 
graphs of  the  Diptera  of  North  America.     4 
parts.     Washington,  Smithsonian   Institution, 


<Smithsonian    Miscellane- 


Col- 


lectio 


everal  monographs  will  be  found  under  the 

respective  families- 

H-  LoEw. — Diptera  AmericsB  septentrionalis  indi- 

gena.     2    parts-     Berlin,    1861-72.     Originally 

published  in  10  centuriae  in  the  Berliner  Ento- 

mol.  Zeitschrift. 

Descriptions  of  1,000  North  American  Diptera,  but 
without  synoptic  arrangement. 
C    R.  Osten   Sacken.— Western   Diptera :  De- 
scriptions of  new  genera  and  species  of  Dip- 
tera from  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  especially  from  California.     <Bul.  U.  S. 
Geolog.  and  Geogr.  Survey  of  the  Territories, 
Vol.  Ill,  1877,  pp.  189-354-    ,       ,,.,., 
Fr    Bkauer.— Die  Zweiflugler  des  Kaiserhchen 
Museums  zu  Wien.   Parts  I-III.    Wien,  1880- 
1883. 

Important  contributions  to  the  classification  of  the 
Diptera. 
C.  H.  T.  TowNSEND.— The  North  American  gen- 
era of  Nemocerous  Diptera.     <Trans.  Amer. 
Entom.  Soc,  1892,  pp.  144-160. 


III.    MONOGRAPHS   AND   SYNOPSES 

C.  R.  Osten  Sacken.— New  genera  and  species 
of  North  American  Tipulids  with  short  palpi, 
with  an  attempt  at  a  new  classification  of  the 
tribe.  2  pis.  <Proc.  Afad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila., 
1859,  pp.  197-256. 

C.  R.  Osten  Sacken.— On  the  North  American 
Tipulidas,  Part  I.  <Monographs  of  the 
Diptera  of    North  America,   Part    IV,    1S69. 

A  monograph  of  the  North  American  TipuUds 
brevipalpi  and  the  sections  Cylindrotomina 
and  Ptychopterina. 

C.  R.  Osten  Sacken.— Studies  on  Tipulida:. 
Part  I,  Tipulida:  longipalpi.  <Berl.  Ent. 
Zeitschr.,  1886,  pp.  153-1S8.  Part  1 1 ,  Tipulida; 
brevipalpi.     <Ibid,  1S87,  pp.  1S3-242. 

H.  LoEW.— Table  for  determining  the  North 
American  species  of  the  genus  Pachyrrhina. 
<Verh.  zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien,  1S79,  pp. 
5I3-5I6- 

D.  W.  CoQuiLLETT. — Syiioptic  tables  of  the 
North  America  mosquitoes.  <Cir.  No.  40, 
second  series,  Div.  Entom.,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agric,  1900,  pp.  4-7. 

N.  Banks. — Some  Psychodidae  from  Long  Island, 

N.  V.     <Can.  Entom.,  1894,  pp.  329-333. 
T.    KiNCAiD.— The    Psychodida;    of    the    Pacific 

coast.     <Entom.  News,  1899.  pp.  30-37. 
J.  WiNNERTZ. — Beitrag  zu  einer  Monographie  der 

Gallmiicken.      <Lmnsa    Entomologica,   Vol. 

VIII,  1853,  4  pis. 

C.  R.  Osten  Sacken.— On  the  North  Ai 

Cecidomyidse.     <  Monographs  of  the  Dipt) 
of  North   America,    by    H.    Loew   and  C.  R. 
Osten  Sacken,  Part  I,  No.  5,  1862,  pp.  173-205. 

B.  D.  Walsh.— On  the  bisects,  Coleopterous,  Hy- 
menopterous  and  Dipterous,  inhabiting  the 
galls  of  certain  species  of  Willow.  Diptera 
<Proc.  Entom.  Soc.  Phila.;  Vol.  Ill,  1864 
PP-  543-644;  Vol.  VI,  1866,  pp.  223-229. 

J.  VON  Bergenstamm   and   Paul   Loew.— Syn 
opsis  Cecidomyidarum.     <Verh.  k.  k.  zool, 
bot.  Ges.  in  Wien,  Vol.  XXVI,  1876,  pp.  i-in< 
A  synopsis  of  all  the  literature  of  the  family. 

J.  WiNNERTZ. — Beitrag  zu  einer  Monographie  der 
Pilzmiicken.  <Verh.  k.  k.  zool.-bot.  Ges.  in 
Wien,  1863,  pp.  637-6^4. 

Useful  for  determination  of  genera;  no  American 
species  are  described. 

J.  WiNNERTZ. — Beitrag  zu  einer  Monographie  der 
Sciarinen.     Wien,  1867,  pp.  187. 

D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT.— The  buffalo  gnats  or  black 

flies  of  the  United  States.     A  synopsis  of  the 

Dipterous  family  Simuliidc-e.      <Bui.  10,  new 

series,  Div.  Entom.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  i8g8, 

pp.  66-6g. 
H.  Loew. — Revision  derBlepharoceridae.  <Schles. 

Zeitschr.    f.    Entom.,   neue    Folge,    Heft   VI, 

Breslau,  1S77. 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.— On  the  classification  of  North 

American  Diptera.     Second  paper.     <  Entom. 

Amer.  Vol.  I,  1885,  pp.  10-13. 

Table  of  the  genera  of  North  American  Leptida:. 

D.  W.  CoQuiLLETT. — Synopsis  of  the  Dipterous 
genus  Symphoromyia.  <Joum.  N.  Y.  En- 
tom. Soc.  i8q4,  pp.  53-56. 

Fr.  Brauer. — Versuch  einer  Characteristik  der 
Gattungen  der  Notacanthen  (Ltr.),  mit  Riick- 
sicht  auf  die  im  Kaiserlichen  Museum  be- 
findlichen  von  Dr.  J.  R.  Schiner  aufgestellten 
neuen  Gattungen.  <Die  Zweiflugler  des  Kais. 
Museums  zu  Wien,  Vol.  II,  1882,  pp.  3-35. 
The  Notacantha  Latreille  comprise  the  family 
Stratiomyidse  and  a  part  of  the  Leptida. 

S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.—Onthe  classification  of  North 
American  Diptera.  Third  paper.  <  Entom. 
Amer.  Vol.  I,  1885,  pp.  114-116. 

ULept^dce  a 


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Mydaids.     <Trans.    Kans.   Acad.    Sci.,  Vol. 

XV,  pp.  53-58,  189S. 
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D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT. — Monograph  of  the  Lomatina 
of  North  America.  <Can.  Entom.,  Vol. 
XVIII,  1886,  pp.  81-87. 

The    Lomatina    comprise   the   genera    Eucessia. 
Leptochilus,  Aphcebantus  and  Oncodocera. 
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of  Anthracina.     <Can.  Entom.,  Vol.  XVIII, 
1886,  pp.  157-159- 

A  tabular  arrangement  of  the  genera  composing' 
the  subfamily  Anthracina. 
D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT. — Monograph  of  the  species 
belonging  to  the  genus  Anthrax  from  America, 
north   of    Mexico.      <Trans.   Ainer.    Entom. 
Soc.  Vol.  XIV,  18S7,  No.  2,  pp.  159-182. 
D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT. — Rcvision  of  the  species  of 
.Antlirax    from    America,    north    of     Mexico. 
<Trans.  Amer.  Entom.  Soc,  1S92,  pp.  168-187. 
D.  W.  CciQUiLLETT. — Notes  and  descriptions  of 
North  American  Bombyliids.    <Trans.  Amer. 
Entom.  Soc,  1894,  pp.  89-112. 
D.  W.  COQUILLETT.— Revision  of  the  Bombylid 
genus    Epacmus.     <Can.    Entom.,    1892,   pp. 

D.  W.  COQUILLETT. — Revision  of  the  Bombylid 
genus  Aphcebantus.  <West  American  Scien- 
tist, i8gi,  pp.  254-264. 

D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT. — Synopsis  of  the  Dipterous 
genus  Thereva.  <Can.  Entom.,  1893,  pp. 
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D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT.— Synopsis  of  the  Dipterous 
genus    Psilocephala.     <Can.     Entom.,    1S93, 


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D.  W.  CoQUiLLETT. — Revision  of  the  Dipterous 
family  Therevids.  <Journ;  N.  Y.  Entom. 
Soc,  September,  1894,  pp.  97-101. 
C.  R.  OsTEN  Sacken.— Western  Diptera,  etc. 
<Bul.  U.  S.  Geolog.  and  Geogr.  Survey  of  the 
Territories,  Vol.  HI,  No.  2,  1S77. 

Synoptical  and  analytical   table  of  the  Western 
species  of  Cyrtopogon,  pp.  294-309. 


i  Dasypo- 


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S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.— On  the  North  American  Asil- 
idae — Dasypogoninae,  Laphrins — with  a  new 

fenus  of  Syrpnids.     <Tians.  Amer.  Entom. 
oc,  Vol.  XI,  1883,  pp.  1-35,  Pis.  I.  2. 
Tabulates  the  genera  of  the  subfair 
gonin^e  and  Laphrin.t',  '  '' 

S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.— On  the  North  An 

id^,   Part  II.     < Trans.  Amer. 

Vol.  XII,  1885,  pp.  53-76. 

I'abulates  the  species  of  Laphria  and  revises  the 
genera  and  species  of  the  subfamily  Asilin^e, 
excepting  the  genus  Asilus. 
W.  A.  Snow. — List  of  Asilidae  supplementary  to 

Osten  Sacken's  catalogue  of  North  American 

Diptera.   <Kans.  Univ.  Quart.,  Vol.  IV,  1S96, 

pp.  173-190. 
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era have  been   published  in  the  Can.  Entom., 

1893.  PP-  20,  33,  So,  iiS  and  175. 
D.   W.    CoQuiLLETT.  —  Ospriocerus.       <Entom. 

News,  i8gS,  p.  37. 
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American  Empid^.    <Proc  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus., 

Vol.  XVII,  pp.  3S7-440.     1S96. 
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dx.     <  Monographs  of  the  Diptera  of  North 

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1-77.     m 

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D.  W.  CoQui 
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ror  the  species  of  fifteen  genera. 

:h.— New  species  of  Phora.     <Can. 

Sg2,  pp.  142-146. 

s  a  table  of  species. 

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United  States.    <Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 

Vol.  XXIX,  pp.  77-86.     1899. 
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Univ.    Quart.,   Vol.    III.    Part    I,    1894,   pp. 

143-152;  Part  II,  1895-  PP-  205-207. 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.- Contribution  to  a  monograph 

of    the   North   American   Syrphid^e.     <Proc. 

Amer.    Philos.    Soc,    Vol.    XX,    1882,     pp. 

299-332- 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON.— Synopsis  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Syrphids.     Bui.  U.  S.  National  Museum, 

No.  31,  1886. 

This  work  supersedes  the  previous  publications  on 
this  family. 
W.    A.    Snow.— Supplementary    list    of    North 

American  Syrphidx.     <Kans.  Univ.  Quart., 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  249-262.     1895. 
W.  D.  Hunter. — A  summary  of  the  members  of 

the  genus  Chilosia  Meig.  in  North  America, 

with'  descriptions    of    new    species.       <Can. 

Entom.,  1896,  pp.  227-233. 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON. — The  North  American  species 

of  Conops.     <Trans.  Conn.  Acad.,  Vol.  IV, 

1882.  pp.  325-342. 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON. — North  American  Conopid^e  : 

Stylogaster,  Dalmannia,  Oncomyia.     <Trans. 

Conn.  Acad..  Vol.  VI,  1883,  pp.  5-12. 
A  revision  of  the  three  genera  mentioned. 
Fr.  Brauer. — Monographie  der  Oestriden.  Wien, 

1863. 

Four  supplements,  by  the  same  author,  are  pub- 
lished in  Wiener  Entom.  Zeit..  Vol.  V.  1886, 
p.  289,  pis.  4,  Vol.  VI,  1887,  pp.  4,  71  and  217. 
S.  W.  WiLLiSTON. — North  American  Tachinidas. 

Gonia.      <Can.    Entom.,    Vol.    XIX,    1887, 

pp.  6-12. 

A  revision  of  the  species  of  Gonia. 


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tions from  the  Departmeiit  of  Zoology  and 
Entomology,  No.  4.  Reprinted  from  Bui.  Sci. 
Lab.  Denison  University,  Vol.  XI,  Art.  X, 
Februar)',  igoi.  Columbus,  published  by  the 
University,  February,  iqoi,  pp.  241-264,  pis. 
LIX-LXI  inc. 


NEUROPTERA 


I. — CATALOGUES 


Banks.— A  synopsis,   catalogue,   and  biblio- 
graphy of  the  Neuropteroid  insects  of  temperate 


II. — GENERAL    WORKS    ON    CLASSI- 
FICATION 

mMANN  Burmeister.— Handbuchder  Entomo- 
logie.     Berlin.  1832-1835. 

The  Neuroptera  are  treated  in  Vol.  II.  Part  I. 
Rambur.— Historic  naturelle  des  Neuropteres. 
Suites  k  Buffon.     Paris,  1842. 

iRMANN  Hagen.— Synopsis  of  the  Neuroptera 
of  North  America,  with  a  list  of  the. South 
American  species.  Prepared  for  the  Smithson- 
ian Institution.  <Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections,  Washington,  1861. 


Bibliography 


Contains  tables  to   European  genera,  and,  as  an 
appendix,    an    elaborate  classification  of  the 
Psocid.-e  by  H.  Kolbe. 
Fr.  Brauer.— Verzeichnis  der  bis  jetzt  bekannten 
Neuropteren  im  Sinne  Linn^'s.     <Verh.  zool.- 
bot.  Ges.  Wien.,  1868,  pp.  35<5-4»6  ;  7"-742. 
Contains  tables  to  all  tlie  genera  known  at  date. 
N.  Banks.— New  genera  and  species  of  Nearctic 
Neuropteroid  Insects.    <Trans.  Amer.  Entom. 
Soc,  iSqq-iqoo,  pp.  230-2i<5._,^         ,  ^  ^ 

Generic  synopses  of  the  PerHd,"e  and  Ephemendx. 
and  tables  of  Callib.-Etis  and  Tri.-Enodes. 
H.  Albarda.— Revision desRaphidides.    <Tijd. 

voor  Entom.,  i&ji,  pp.  65-184. 
H.  A.  Hagen.— Stray  notes  on  the  Myrmeleonidje. 
<Can.  Entom.,  1887-1SS8.    Continued  in  sev- 
eral numbers. 
N.  Banks.— A  classification  of  the  North  American 
Myrmeleonid^.  <Can.  Entom.,  iSqq,  pp. 67-71- 
G.  Th.  Schneider.— Symbola  ad   monographiam 

generis  Chrysop^e  Leach.    Vratislavis,  1851. 
H.  A.  HAGEN.—Hemerobidarum  synopsis  synony- 
mica.    <Stettiner  Entom.  Zeit..  1866,  pp.  369- 

H.  A.  Hagen.— Monograph  of  the  Hemerobids. 
<Part  I,  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol. 
XXIII,  1SS6,  pp.  250-269:   Part  II,  I.e.,  pp. 

Never  completed. 

HEMIPTERA 

I. — CATALOGUES    AND    CHECK-LISTS 
F.  A.  DoHRN.— Catalogus  Hemipterorum.     Stet- 
tin, i85g. 
Philip  R.  Uhler.— Check-List  of  the  Hemiptera- 
Heteroptera  of  North  America.     Published  by 
the  Brooklyn  Entom.  Soc.  1886. 
L.  Lethierry  et  G.  Severin.— Catalogue  g^n^ral 
des  H^mipt^res.    3  vols.     1^3-^806.     <Mus6e 
royal  d'histoire  nalurelle  de  Belgique. 

.......    j_  _,i  .L-  ti..^ *_.„  — gpj  jf,g  Cap- 


II. — GENERAL   WORKS    ON    CLASSI- 
FICATION. 
C.  W.  Hahn  und  G.  A.  W.  Herrich-Schaef- 

FER.— Die  wanzenartigen   Insecten.      10  vols. 

Nuernberg,  1831-1853- 
C.  J.  B.  Amvot  et  J.  G.  Auoinet-Serville.— 

H^mipt^res.    Suites  k  Buffon.     Histoire  Nat- 

urelledes  Insectes.     Paris,  1843. 
C.Stal.— Analectahemipterologica.     Berlin,  1866- 

iS6q.     3   parts.     Originally  published    in    the 

Berlin,  Entom.  Zeitschr. 
C.  Stal.— Hemiptera   Fabriciana,   secundum    ex- 

empla  Musei  Hafniensiset  Kieliensisdescripta. 

2  parts.    <K.ongl.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl., 

1868-186Q. 
J.  G.  Schioedte.— Einige  neue   Hauptsatze    der 

Morphologie  und  Systematik  der  Rhynchoten. 

<Naturh.  Tidskr..  i86q,  p.  237ff. 
P.  R.  Uhler.— List  of   Hemiptera   of  the  region 

west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  including  those 

collected  during   the  Hayden   explorations  of 

1873.    *^Bul.  U.S.  Geolog.  and  Geogr.  Survey 

of  the  Territories,  Vol.  1, 1875,  PP.  267-361,  pis. 

iq-2i 


...eluding  monogrraphs  of  the  families  Cydnids: 
and  Saldids,  and  the  Hemiptera  collected  by 
A.  S.  Packard,  M.D.  <U.S.  Geolog.  and 
Geogr.  Survey,  Bui.,  Vol.  Ill,  No:2,  1877,  PP. 
355-475-  „  .       ,^       . 

C.  Stal.— Enumeratio  Hemipterorum.  Bidrag 
till  en  forteckning  bfver  alia  hitills  kanda  Hem- 
iptera (or  :  Index  specierum  omnium  hucusque 
cognitarum  cum  observationibus  systematicis). 
<K.ongl.  Svensk.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  1870- 
1877,  5  parts. 

C.  Stal.— Bidrag  till   Hemipterenas  Systematik. 

Ofver.  k.  Vet.-Akad.  Forh.,  1867,  pp.  4Q1-S60. 

Synopses  of  genera  of  Pentatomidse  and  Coreidx. 


Herbert  Osborn. — Classification  of  Hemiptera. 

< Entomologica  Amer.,  Vol.  1, 1885,  pp.  21-27. 

Short   characterization   of  the   whole   order,    with 

tables  of  suborders  and  families. 

H.  E.  Summers.— The  true  bugs,  or  Heteroptera, 

of  Tennessee.     <Bul.  Tenn.   Agr.   Exp.  Sta., 

Vol.  IV,  No.  3,  July.  i8qi,  pp.  75-06. 

Contains  a  table  of  the  families,  tables  of  genera  of 
all  aquatic  forms,  of  the  Emesidas,  Nabid.'e, 
Phymatidre,  AradJdx,  TingitidK.  and  the 
Cydnidae. 

III. — MONOGRAPHS    AND    SYNOPSES 

Charles   William  Woodworth.— S\Tiopsis   of 

North  American  Cicadid*.      <  Psyche,  Vol.  V , 

iS88,  pp.  67-6S. 
P.  R.  Uhler.— Preliminary  survey  of  the  Cicadidic 

of   the   United   States,   Antilles,   and   Mexico. 

<Trans.  Maryland  Acad.  Sci.,  i8g2,  pp.  175-17Q. 
A.    D.    MAcGiLLivRAY.-Cicadida?.        American 

genera  and  species.     <Can.    Entom.,  March, 

iQOi,  pp.  74-84. 
J.  O.  Westwuou.— On  thefamily  Fulgoridae,  with 

a  monograph  of  the  genus  Fulgora  of  Linnaeus. 

<Trans.   Linn.    Soc.    London,    Vol.    XVIII, 

i83q,  pp.  133-238,  I  pi. 
C.    Stal.— Die    amerikanischen    Fulgoriden-Gat- 

tungen    synoptisch    beschrieben.       <Stettiner 

Entom.  Zeit.,  Vol.  XXXI,  1870,  pp.  255-258- 
W.  H.  AsHMEAD.— A  generic  synopsis  of  the  Ful- 

gorid^.    < Entom.  Amer.,  1888,  pp.  1-6,  21-28. 
E.  P.  Van  Duzee.— A  preliminary  review  of  the 

North  American  Delphacidas.    <Bul.  Buffalo 

Soc.  Nat.  Sci.,  Vol.  V,  i8g7,  pp.  225-261. 

E.  P.  Van  Duzee.— Observations  on  some  north- 
em  Derbid^.  <Can.  Entom.,  i88g,  pp.  159  and 
176. 

P.  R.  Uhler.— Aids  to  a  recognition  of  some 
North  American  genera  and  species  of  the  old 
family  Fulgorids.  <Trans.  Maryland  Acad. 
Sci.,  iQOo,  pp.  401-408. 

Treats  of  the  species  of  Sco/o/^s. 

C.  Stal. — Bidrag  till  Membracidemas  Kannedom. 
Ofver.  af  Kongl.  Vet.-Akad.  Fbrhandl.,  1869. 

F.  W.  Goding. — Bibliographical  and  synonymical 
catalogue  of  the  described  Membracidae  of 
North  America.  <Bul.  111.  St.  Lab.  Nat. 
Hist.,  Vol.  III.  i8q4.  pp.  3Q1-482. 

F.  W.  Goding.— A  synopsis  of  the  subfamilies 
and  genera  of  the  Membracidae  of  North  Amer- 
ica.    <Trans.   Amer.    Entom.   Soc,   i8q2,  pp. 

V.  Signoret.— Revue  critique  du  groupe  des  Tet- 

tigonides  et  de  la  tribu  des  Cercopides.     <Re- 

vue  et  Mag.  de  ZooL,  Vol.  V,  1853,  PP.  173-184- 
F.  W.  Goding. — Synopsis  of  the  subfamilies  and 

genera  of  the  North  American  Cercopidse,  with 

a  bibliographical  catalogue  of    the    described 

species.     <Bul.  111.  State  Labor,  Nat.  Hist., 

Vol.  Ill,  i8qs.  pp.  483-501. 
E.  D.  Ball.— A  study  of  the  genus  Clastoptera. 

<Proc.   Iowa  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  Ill,  i8g6,  pp. 

i82-iq3,  4pls. 
E.  P.  Van  Duzee.— A  catalogue  of  the  described 

Jassoidea  of  North  America.    <Trans.  Amer. 

Entom.  Soc,  iSg4,  pp.  245-^16. 
E.  P.  Van  Duzee.— A  synoptical  arrangement  of 

the  genera  of  the  North  American  Jassid^,  etc. 

<Trans.  Amer.  Entom.  Soc,  i8q2,  pp.  295-307. 
V.  Signoret.— Revue    iconographique    des    Tet- 

tigonides.     <Ann.   Soc.    Entom.    de    France, 

1853-1855,  with  colored  plates. 
V.  Signoret.— Essai  sur  les  Jassides  StRl,  Fieb., 

et  plus  particuli^rement  sur  les  Acoc^phalides 

Puton.    <Ann.  Soc  Entom.  de  France,  1870- 

1880. 
Charles  William   Woodworth.— Jassid:E    of 

Illinois,^Part  I.    <Bul.    111.   State   Lab.   Nat. 

Hist.,  Vol.  111,1887.  pp.  (^33-     ,.         ,  ,,      , 
H.  Osborn  and  E.  D.  Ball.— Studies  of  North 

American  Jassoidea.     <Proc.  Davenport  Acad. 

Sci.,  Vol.  VII,  i8q8,  pp.  45-100. 
Contains  a  review  oi  Agallia. 
H.  Osborn  and    E.  D.  Ball.— Contributions  to 

the  Hemipterous  fauna  of  Iowa.    <Proc.  Iowa 

Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  IV,  1897,  PP-  172-234. 
Contains  a  review  oi  Deltocephalus. 


411 


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J.  H.  (!;oMSTOCK.— Second  Report  on  scale  insects, 
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T.  D.  A.  CocKERELL.— First  supplement  to  the 
check-list  of  the  Coccids.  <Bul.  111.  St.  Lab. 
Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  V,  iSqq,  pp.  380-398. 

T.  D.  A.  CocKERELL.— A  check-list  of  the  Nearc- 
tic  Coccidae.     <Can.  Entom..  i8q4.  PP.  31-36. 

T.  D.  A.  COCKERELL.— Table  of^ North  American 
Kermes,  based  on  external  characters.  <  Psyche, 
Vol.  IX,  IQOO,  pp.  44-45- 

W.  NEWELL.—On  the  North  American  species  of 
the  subgenera  Diaspidiotus  and  Hemiberlesia, 
of  the  genus  Aspidiotus.  <Contrib.  Dept. 
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R.  A.  CooLEY. — The  Coccid  genera  Chionaspis 
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Agric.  Exp.  Station,  August,  iSqq  pp.  c8,  q  pis. 

G.  B.  King.— The  genus  Kermes  in  North  Amer- 
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Franz  Law.— Zur  Systematik  der  Psylloden. 
<Verh.  d.  k.  k.  Zool.-Bot.,  Ges.  in  Wien,  1878, 
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Characteristics  and  tables  of  the  European  sub. 
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W.  H.  AsHMEAD.— On  the  Aphididae  of  Florida, 
with  descriptions  of  new  species.  Family 
Psyllidae.  <Can.  Entom.,  Vol.  XIII,  j88i, 
pp.  220-225. 

Gi^es  a  list  of  the  North  American  species,  with 
descriptions  of  several  new  ones. 

C.  V.  RiLEY.— NotesonNorthAmericanPsyllidse. 
<Proc.  Biolog.  Soc.  Wash.,  Vol.  II,  1884,  pp. 
67-7Q. 

A  classified  list  of  the  North  American  PsylHdne 

hitherto  described,  with  short  characteristics  of 

the  subfamilies,  and  descriptions  of  some  new 

genera  and  species. 

C.  W.  MALLY.—Psyllids  found  at  Ames.    <Proc. 

lowaAcad.Sci.,  Vol.  II,i8q4,  pp.  152-171,3  pis, 

A  list  of  the  described  species,  with  a  few  additions. 
Benjamin  D.  Walsh.— On  the  genera  of  Aphid ae 
found  in  the  United  States,  <Proc.  Entom, 
Soc.  Phila.,  Vol.  I,  1861-1863,  PP.  294-310. 
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A  review  of  the  family,  including  the  Psyllidre  ; 
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Cyrus  Thomas. — A  list  of  the  species  of  the  tribe 
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1877. 


This  is  the  latest   European  work  on  this  family, 
containing  tables  for  the  determination  of  the 

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Contains  a  bibliography,  synopsis  of  genera,  and 
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O.  W.  Oestlund.— Synopsis  of  the  Aphidids  of 
Minnesota.  <Bul.  No.  4,  Geolog.  and  Nat. 
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W.  H.  AsHMEAD. — A  generic  synopsis  of  the 
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T.  A.  Williams.— Host-plantlistof  North  Amer- 
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F.  X.  FiEBER. — Species  generis  Corisa  monogra- 
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der  Wiss.  Pnig,  Ser.  5,  Vol.  VII,  1852,  pp.  213- 

F.  X,  FiEBER.— Rhynchotographien,  drei  mono- 
graphische  Abhandlungen.  Sciocoridas,  Oxy- 
carenus,  Notonecta?.  <" Abhandl.  kon.  bohm. 
Ges.  der  Wiss.  Prag,  Ser.  5,  Vol.  VII,  1851,  Pp. 

G,  W.  KiRKALDY.— Revision  of  the  Notonectid^, 
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PP- 


-History   and     anatomy    of    the 

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Sci.  Phila.,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  I,  1847,  PP.  57-67,  pi.  1. 
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G.  Mayr.— Die    Belostomiden.      Monographisch 

bearbeitet.     -^Verh.   k.  k.   Zool,    Bot.  Ges.  in 

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Table  I. 
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Now  greatly  antiquated  ;  treats  of  the  Scutelleridae 


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A  monograph  of  the  Cydnida;  of  the  whole  world. 

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Andrew  Murray.— Economic  Entomology.    Ap- 
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P.  M^GNiN.— Les  Parasites  et  les  maladies  parasi- 
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et  les  animaux  sauvages  avec  lesquels  ils  peuvent 
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The  Pediculida;  are  treated  on  pp.  72-79- 

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PHYSAPODA 


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The  Physapoda.  compiled  from  Haliday's  manu- 
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ORTHOPTERA 


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MUEL  H.  ScuDDER-— A  caBloguc  of  the  Or- 
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An  alphabetical,  not  synonymical.  list  of  the 
Orthoptera  described  from  North  America ; 
contains  also  a  full  bibliography  up  to  1867. 


II. 


-LOCAL   LISTS 


A  synonymical  catalogue  of  the  Orthoptera  found 
in  Maine,  with  notes  on  habits  and  distribu- 
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Cyrus  Thomas.— A  list  of  the  Orthoptera  of  Illi- 
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pp.  59-6g. 

A  synonimical  list  of  the  Oithoptera    found  in 
Illinois. 
C.    H.    Fernland.— The    Orthoptera    of    New 
England-     <  Ann.  Rept.  Mass.  Agric.  Col., 
1888,  pp.  61. 
W.    Beutenmuller. — Descriptive    catalogue   of 
the  Orthoptera  found  vvithin  fifty  miles  of  New 
York  City.     <Bul.  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.   Hist., 
Vol.  VI,  pp.  253-316.     1894. 

III. — GENERAL  WORKS   ON    CLASSI- 
FICATION 

S.  H.  ScuDDER. — Guide  to  the  genera  and  classifi- 
cation of  the    North    American    Orthonca. 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1897. 
Contains  a  bibliography. 

C.  Brunner  von  Wattrnwyl. — Revision  du 
syst^me  des  Orthopteres,  et  description  des 
especes  rapport^es  par  M.  Leonardo  Fea  de 
Birmamie.  <Ann.  Mus.  Civ.  Stor.  Nat. 
Genova,  XIII,  1893,  pp.  1-230. 

J.  G.  Audinet-Serville. — Histoire  naturelle  des 
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Contains    synoptical    tables    of    species,   besides 

descriptions  ot  numerous  North  American  Or- 

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MliEL  H.  ScuDDER.— Materials  for  a  monograpll 

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Contains  synoptical   tables   and 


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Synopsis  of  tlie  families  of  Orthoptera ;  also  a  list 

of  useful  works  in  the  study  of  North  American 

Orthoptera. 

S.  H.  Scudder.— A  list  of  the  Orthoptera  of  New 

England.    <Psyche,  Sept.,  1900,  pp.  99-106. 

IV. — MONOGRAPHS    AND    SYNOPSES 

Samuel  H.  Scuddhr. — Summary  of  the  U.  S. 
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Synoptical  tables  of  the  genera  of  Phasmida;,  with 
notes  on  many  species, 

Samuel  H.  Scudder.— The  species  of  Diaphero- 
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Samuel  H.  Scudder.— Index  to  the  Mantida;  of 
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Classification  of  the  Mantid*.  Part  II  contains 
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Synoptic  'table  of  genera  and  species  of    North 
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186  pp..  2  pis. 

A  synopsis  of  the  North  American  species. 
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cognitis  descriptis  et  delineatis.  London ,  1 88g. 
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cana (Diagnoses  prsUminares).  Ser.  III. 
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Contains  description  of  new  Blattid^e,  with  synop- 
tical arrangement. 

C.  Brunner  von  Wattenwvl. — Nouveau  sys- 
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Synoptical  arrangement  of  all  described  species, 
with  descriptions  of  many  new  ones ;  also 
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Henri    de  Saussure.— Melanges  Orthopt^rolo- 
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Tascicule  II  contains  the  Blattido^. 

W.  L.  Blatchlev.— The  Locustids  and  Blattidx 
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C.  Stal. — Recensio  Orthopterorum.    Revue  crit- 
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A   synoptical   arrangement   of  the  genera  of  the 
family,  with  descriptions  of  new  genera  and 

Cyrus  Thomas. — Synopsis  of  North  American 
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Vol.  V,  Part  I,  1873. 

A  systematical  arrangement  of  the  described  spe- 
cies of  North  American  locusts:    Fart  I.     Spe- 
cies of  the  United  States;  Part  II,    Species 
from  other  parts  of  North  America. 
Samuel  H.  Scuddhr. — Spharagemon,  a  genus  of 
(Edipodidae  ;  with  a   revision   of   the   species. 
<Proc.  Boston  Soc.   Nat.    Hist.,  Vol.  XVII, 
•875,  pp.  467-471.     Separate,  under  the  title: 
Entom.  Notes,  IV,  pp.  66-70. 

A  synopsis  of  the  genus,  with  descriptions  of  new 
species. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.— A  revision  of  two  Ameri- 
can genera  of  CEdipodida.  <  Proc.  Boston 
Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  XVII,  1875,  pp.  478- 
485.  Separate,  under  the  title:  Entom. 
"      s,  IV,  pp. 

synopsis  oft 

Cyrus  Thomas.— Manual  of  economic  entomol- 
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<  Ninth  report  of  the  State  Entomologist  .  .  . 
of  the  State  of  Illinois,  1880,  pp.  73-140. 

Contains  a  synoptical  table  or  key  to  the  families 

of  Orthoptera,  a  key  to  the  subfamilies  and 

genera,  and  a  key  to  the  Illinois  species  of 

Acridids. 

Lawrenck  Bruner. — North  American  Acrididae, 

north    of    Mexico.     <  Third    Report    U.    S. 

Entom.  Commission,  1883,  pp.  55-61. 

A  systematical  list  of  the  species  described  from 

North  America. 

Henri    de    Saussure.  —  Prodromus    CEdipodi- 

orum    Insectorum   ex    ordine   Orthopterorum. 

<M^m.  Soc.  Phys.  Hist.  Nat.  Geneva,  1884. 

4to,  254  pp. 

A  synoptical  monograph  of  the  subfamily  O-dipo- 
din.-c  of  all    countries,  with    descriptions  of 

C.  Stal. — Systema  Acrideorum.     <Bih.  Svensk. 

Vet.  Akad.  Handl.,  187S,  pp.  100. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.- Revision  of  the  Orthop- 

teran  group  Melanopli  (Acridids,)  with  special 

reference  to  North  American  forms.     <P: 

U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  XX,  pp.oi-421.     il 
Samuel  H.   Scudder.— The  Orthopteran  genus 

Hippiscus.     < Psyche,  Vol.  VI,  1892.     [O 

tinued  in  several  numbers.] 
Samuel  H.  Scudder. — The  North  American  spe^ 

ciesof  Orphulella.     <Can.  Entom.,  1899,  pp, 

177-188. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.— The  species  of  the  O 

thopteran  genus  Derotmema.     <Proc.  Ame 

Acad.   Arts   and   Sci.,   Vol.    XXXV,  No.  19, 

March,  1900,  pp.  387-395- 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.— Some  genera  of   CEdipo- 

didae  rescued  from  the  Tryxalid^.     <Psycne, 

1890,  pp.  433-442- 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.— Supplement  to  a  revision 

ot  the  Melanopli.     <Proc.   Davenport  Acad. 

Nat.  Sci.  Vol.  VII,  pp.  157-205,  3  pis.     1899. 
Samuel    H.    Scudder.— The   Orthopteran  genus 

Schistocerca.     <Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and 

Sci.,  Vol.  XXXIV,  1899,  pp.  441-476. 
A.     P.     Morsh. — Revision    of     the    species    of 

Spharagemon.       <Psyche,    Vol.    VII,    1895, 

pp.  287-299. 
J.    McNeill.— Revision    of    the    Truxalinae     of 

North   America.       <Proc.    Davenport    Acad. 

Nat.  Sci.,  Vol.  VI,  1897,  pp.  179-274. 
J.   McNeill. — The  Orthopteran  genus  Trimero- 

tropis.     < Psyche,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  27-36.     1900. 


A.  P.  MoFSE. — Notes  on  the  Acrididse  of  New 
England.  <Psyc!ie,  I,  1S94,  pp.  147-167  ;  II, 
>Sq6.  pp.  323-327.  342-344,  3S2-384,  402-403, 
407-411,  410-422,  443-445;  •!!■  i8q7,  pp.  6-.S, 
35-37,50-51,64-66,80-82,87-89,  111-114;  IV, 
1898,  pp.   247-248,  255-260,  269-273,  279-282, 

Samuel  H.  Scudder. — The  speciesof  Hadrotettix, 
a  genus  oi  CEdipodins.  <  Psyche,  1900, 
pp.  67-69. 

[.  Boi.ivAK. —  Essai  sur  les  Acridiens  de  la  tribu 
des  Tettigida:.  <Ann.  Soc.  Entom.  Belg., 
1S87,  pp.  175-313. 

J.  L.  Hancock. — The  species  of  the  new  genus 
Neotettix  with  a  key  to  the  genera  of  North 
American  Tettigia:.  <Entom.  News,  1898, 
pp.  137-141. 

J.  L.  Hancock. — Synopsis  of  subfamiliej;  and 
genera  of  North  American  Tettigids. 
<  Psyche,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  6-7.     1900. 

S.  H.  Scudder.— The  species  of  Circotettix,  a 
North  American  genus  .of  OLdipodinae. 
<Psyche,  Dec.  1900,  pp.  135-141. 

J.  McNeill.— Revision  of  the  Orthopteian  genus 
Trimeroptropis.  <Proc.  U.  S.  Natl.  Mus., 
Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  393-449,  igoi. 

C.  Stal. — Recensio  Orthopterorum.  Revue  crit- 
ique des  Orthopt^resdecrits  par  Linnt^  De  Geer 
etThunberg.  <Part  II.    Stockholm,  1874,  121 

pp. 

Contains  synoptical  tables  of  the  genera. 
C.    BRLtNNBR   VON   Wattenwvl. —  Monographie 
der  Phaneropteriden.      <Wien,  1878,  402  pp., 
8  pis. 

A  synoptical  monograph  of  the  Katydids  of  the 
world,  with  full  liibliography  and  full  synony- 
my of  the  species. 
Ignaoo    Bolivar.— Artliropodos    del    viage    al 
Pacffico,  veriticado  de  1862-1865  porunacom- 
ision  de  naturalistas  enviada  por  el  Gobiemo 
Espanol.     Insectes   Neuropteros  y   Ortopte- 


phalus,  w'ith  "descriptions  of  new  species. 
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der    Pseudophylliden.       <Verh.    Zool.    Bot. 

Ges.  Wien,  1895,  pp.  282. 
J.   Rhdtenbacher. — Monographie  der    Conoce- 

phaliden.      <  Verb.  Zool.   Bot.   Ges.  Wien, 

1891,  pp.  315-562. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.— The  North  American  Ceu- 

thophili.    <  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sci., 

■■  ■   XXX.  iS         - 
H.  ScuE  .  „      . 

Scudderiae.     <Proc.   Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and 

Sci.  Vol.  XXXIII,  1898,  pp.  271-290. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder. — A  preliminary  review  of 

the     North    American     Decticidas.       <  Can. 

Entom.,  1894,  pp.  177-184. 
Samuel  H.  Scudder.     The  described  species  of 

Xiphidium  in   the  United  States  and  Canada. 

<Can.  Entom.,  189S,  pp.  183-184- 
J.  McNeill.— Orchelimum  Serv.    <Can.  Entom., 

1900,  pp.  77-83.  ,        .  , 

Samuel   H.   Scudder.— The  Stenopelmatins  of 

the  Pacific  Coast-     <Can.  Entom.,   1899,  pp. 

W.  I,.  Blatchlev.— The  Locustids  and  Elattidx 
of  Indiana.  < Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sci.  1892,  pp. 
92-163. 

Samuel  H.  Scudder.— Revision  of  the  large, 
stylated,  fossorial  crickets.  <Memoirs  of  the 
Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  I,  No.  1, 
1869. 

Description  of  the  species  of  Scapteriscus    and 
Gryllotalpa. 

Henri  de  Saussure.— Melanges  Orthoptirolo- 
giques.       Gryllides.       Two    parts.       Geneva, 


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A  niunograph  of   the  l'orficulid.-e  of  the   whole 

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Tabulates  thirteen  species  and  gives  a  list  of  books 
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peuvent  etre  en  conUct.  <  Insectes,  Arachnides, 
Crustaces.     Paris.  i88o. 

E.  Piaget.— Les  Pediculines.  Description  de 
toutes  les  esp^cesobserv^es,  enrichied'espfeces 
nouvelles.  <Leyden,  1880,  56  pis.;  Supplement, 
1885,  17  pis. 

O-  Taschenberg.— Die  Mallophagen  mit  be- 
sonderer  Berucksichtigung  der  von  Meyer 
gesammelten  Arten.     Halle,  18S2. 

V.  L.  Kellogg.— A  list  of  the  biting  lice  (Mallo- 
phaga) taken  from  birds  and  mammals  of 
North  America.  <Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus., 
Vol.  XXII,  pp.  39-'"o.     1899. 

Contains  a  bibliography  and  table  to  genera. ' 


CORRODENTIA 


H.  A.  Hagen.— Beitrage  zur  Monographie  der 
Psociden.  <Stettiner  Entom.  Zeit.,  Vols. 
XLIIIandXLIV,  1S82-83. 

ISOPTERA 

H.  A.  Hagen.— Monographie  der  Termiten. 
<Linnaia  Entom.,  Vols.  X.  XII  and  XIV, 
ili55-6o. 


Bibliography 


H.  A.  Hagen.— Monograph  of  the  Erabidina. 
<Can.  Entom.,  Vol.  XVII,  1885. 

Only  one  species  of  this  family  has  hitherto  been 
found  in  the  United  States. 

PLECOPTERA 

F.  J.  PlCTET.— Histoire  naturelle  geniirale  et  par- 
ticuliire  des  insectes  Neuropteres.  Premiere 
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1841-42. 

ODONATA 

W.  F.  KiRBV. — A  synonymic  catalogue  of  Neu- 
roptera  Odonata,  or  dragon-flies.  <  London, 
1890,  pp.  202. 

E.  DE  Selys  Longchamps  et  H.  Hagen.— Mon- 
ographie des  CaloptiSrygines.  <Bul.  Acad. 
Belg.,  Brussels,  1S54. 

E.  DE  Selys  Longchamps  et  H.  Hagen.— Mon 
ographie  des  Gomphines.  <  Bui.  Acad.  Belg. 
Brussels,  1858. 

E.  DE  Selys  Longchamps. — Synopsis  des  Agrio- 
nines.  Six  parts.  <Bu!.  Acad.  Belg.  Brui 
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E  DE  Selys  Longchamps. — Synopsis  des  Cordu' 
lines.     <Bul.  Acad.  Belg.,  Brussels,  1871 

H.  A.  Hagen. — Synopsis  of  the  Odonata  of  Ai 
ica.     <Proc.   Boston  Soc.   Nat.    Hist.,  Vol 
XVIII,  1875,  pp.  20-96. 

Omitting  the  subfamily  Agrionina. 

E  DE  Selys  Longchamps. — Synopsis  d'^^sch- 
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E.  DE  Selys  Longchamps.— Revision  du  Synop- 
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H.  A.  Hagen.— Synopsis  of  the  Odonat  genus 
Leucorhinia.  <Trans.  Amer.  Entom.  Soc. 
iSqo,  pp.  229-236. 

H.  A.  Hagen.— Synopsis  of  the  Odonata  of  North 
America.     <Psyche,  Vol.  V,  1889-90.     N 
pp.   241-250,  Calopteryx  ;    No.  2.  pp.  303 
Anax. 

P.   P.   Calvert.— Catalogue     of      the    Odonata 
(Dragon-flies)  of  the  vicinity  of  Philadelph: 
<Trans.  Amer.  Entom.  Soc,  1S93,  pp.  152- 

D.  S.  k'ellicott.— The  Odonata  of  Ohio.    <Ohio 

Acad,  Sci.  Special  Paper  No.  2,  1899,  pp. 
3  pis. 

E.  B.  Williamson.— The    Dragon-flies  of 

ana.     <  Indiana  Geolog.   Rept.  f.  1899-igoo, 
pp.  229-333,  7  pis. 

EPHEMERID/E 

F.  J.  PiCTET— Histoire  naturelle  g^nerale  et  par- 
ticuli^re  des  insectes  Neuropteres.     Seconde  mono- 
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■843-<5- 


Benjamin  D.  Walsh. — List  of  the  Pseudoneur- 
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the  writer,  with  descriptions  of  over  forty  new 
species,  and  notes  on  their  structural  affinities. 
<Proc.    Acad.    Nat.    Sci.    Phila.,    1862,    pp. 

This  paper  contains,  on    pp.  367-368.  a  table  of 
the  genera  of  Ephemerids. 

Benjamin  D.  Walsh. — Observations  on  certain 
North  American  Neuroptera,  by  H.  Hagen, 
M.D.,  of  Koenigsberg,  Prussia;  translated 
from  the  original  French  MS.,  and  published 
by  permission  of  the  author,  with  notes  and 
descriptions  of  about  twenty  new  North  Ameri- 
can species  of  Pseudoneuroptera.  <Proc. 
Entom.  Soc.  Phila.,  Vol.  II,  1863-64,  pp. 
167-272. 

Contains  a  modification  of  the  table  of  genera  of 
Ephemeridae,  pp.  195-196:  a  table  of  the  sub- 
gener  of  Gomphus.  p.  253,  and  a  "Synoptical 
table  of  the  subfamilies  of  the  family  Odonata,  ' 
pp.  259-260. 
A.  E.  Eaton. — A  monograph  on  the  Ephemerida. 
Part  I.    The  nomenclature  of  the  Ephemerids. 
<Trans.  Entom.  Soc.  London,  1871,  pp.  1-164, 
6  pis. 
A.  E.  Eaton.— A  Revisional  Monograph  of  Re- 
cent   Ephemeridas,    or     May-flies.       <Trans. 
Linn.  Soc.  London;  1883-86,  6  parts. 

THYSANURA 

K.  W.  V.   Dalla   Torre.— Die  Gattungen  und 
Arten  der  Apterygogenea.     <46  Program  k.k. 
Staats-Gymnasium,  Innsbruck,  pp.  23,  1895. 
A  catalogue  of  the  known  species. 

A.  D.  MacGillivray.— A  catalogue  of  the  Thy- 
sanura  of  North  America.  <Can.  Entom., 
1891,  pp.  267-276. 

A.  S-  Packard. — Synopsis  of  the  Thysanura  of 
Essex  County,  Mass.,  with  descriptions  of  a 
few  extralimital  forms.  <  Fifth  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Trustees  of  the  Peabody  Academy 
of  Science  for  tlie  year  1872.  Salem,  1873,  pp. 
23-51. 

John  Lubbock.— Monograph   of  the  Collembola 
and  Thysanura.     <LondonjRa^  Society,  1873. 
The  introduction  givi 


;  the  full  bibliography 


III. 


Synopsis  of  femily  Japygidae. 

A.   D.    MacGillivray.— North  American   Thy- 
sanura.     IV.       <Can.    Entom.,     1893,    pp. 

3i3-3'8- 

Synopses  of  families  Aphorurida;  and  Podurida?. 
A.   D.   MacGillivray.— North  American   Thy- 
sanura.      V.         <Can.     Entom.,     1894,     pp. 
105-110. 

Synopses  of  Entomobr^'idce  and  Smynthuridrt!. 
A.  D.  MacGillivray— The  American  species  of 
Isotoma.     <Can.  Entom.,  i8g6,  pp.  47-58. 


416 


INDEX 


Aaron,  Carrie  E.,  366 

Abe  Lincoln  bug,  313 

Acalyptera;,  90 

Acanthiidse,  288 

AcanthomeridcB,  87,  130 

Achorutes  nivicola,  386 

acknowledgments,  xi 

Acridiida;,  322,  332,  341 

Acroceridae,  134 

Aculeat   Hymenoptera,  The  Habits  of 
the,  20 

Adela,  203 

Adler,  55 

^ciacus  hirundinis,  288 

Aedes,  loi,  102 

^schna,  374 
heros,  365 

^schnidfe,  369,  372,  373,  374 

Agallia  sanguinolenta,  244 

aggressive  mimicry,  142 

agricultural  ant  of  Texas,  the,  46 

Agrionidae,  369,  370,  371,  376 
AgromyzidK,  92,  1S7 
alder  flies,  211 
Aldrich,  144,  145 
Aleuronia,  218 

westwoodii,  21 S 
Aleyrodes,  247 

citri,  247 
Aleyrodicus,  247 
Aleyrodidae,  230,  24O,  247 
ambush  bug.  The,  297 
American  cockroach,  330 
locust,  333 
saw-fly,  75 
Ammophila,  20 
Ampulex,  20 
Ampulex  ruficomis,  20 
Anabrus  purpurascens,  337 
Anabrus  simplex,  337 
Anasa  tristis  De  Geer,  305 
Anatomy  of  the  Blow-Fly,  164 
Anatomy  of   the  Cockroach,  The,    by 

Hiall  and  Denny,  330 
Anax  Junius,  374 


Andrena  vicina,  12 
angular-winged  katydid,  339 
Anisops,  275 
Anopheles,  lot,  102 

claviger-maculipennis-quadrimacula- 
tus,  loi 

crucians,  101 

punctipennis,  loi 
Anoplura,  82,  227,  316,  347 
ant,  black,  46 

black  carpenter,  43 
ant-decapitating  fly,  life  history  of,  147 
ant-lions,  126,  127,  219 
ant,  pavement,  43 

red,  43,  46 
Anthocorida;,  271,  2S7 
Anthomyia  Flies,  The,  171 
Anthomyiidse,  90,  171 
Anthophoridfe,  6,  7 
anthrax,  81,  131 
ants,  37 

Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps,  Lubbock,  1(3 
ants,  honey,  45 

nests,  128 

solitary,  32 

stinging,  39 

stingless,  39 

typical  life  history  of,  48 
ants,  white,  353 
Apathus,  15 
Aphidid^e,  230,  262 
Aphis-lions,  The,  221 
Aphorurida;,  385,  386 
Aphrophorinie,  241 
Apidce,  6 

Apiocerida:,   87,  136 
Apocephalus  pergandei  Coq,  147 
Apoidea,  Superfamily,  3,  4 
apparatus,  collecting,  3S9 
aquarium,  the,  399 
aquatic  insects,  collecting,  395 
Aradidas,  272,  290,  298 
Aradus  crenatus  Say,  298 
Aradus  similis  Say,  298 
Archytas,  158 


417 


Index 


Arilus  cristatus  L.,  294 

armored  scales,  254 

army  worm,  159 

Ashmead,  W.  H.,  xi,  2,  12,  20,  31, 

33.  49.  56,  59.  73 
Asilids,  88,  136,  141 
Asiloidea,  Super-family,  88 
Asilus  sericeus,  143 
Asindulum  montanum,  117 
assassin  bugs,  293 
Aster,  114 
Atherix,  126 
Atropidae,  352 
Atwood,  327 

Australian  cockroach,  330 
Axima  zabriskii,  8 

Baccha,  150 

back-rolling  wonder,  340 

back  swimmers,  The,  275 

Bseus,  51 

Bailey,  W.  W  ,  212 

Banks,  Nathan,  xi,  218 

bark  lice,  113,  250 

bat  ticks,  190 

beating  net,  39I 

bedbug,  82 

bed-bug  family,  the,  288 

bed-bug.  Life  history  of,  289 

bee,  bumble,  6 

common  carpenter,  10 

cuckoo,  7 
bee-flies,  137 

bee-fly,  typical  life-history  of,  138 
bee  hives,  128 

honey,  6 

large  carpenter,  9 

mason,  10,  11 

small  carpenter,  8 
bees,  blunt-tongued  burrowing,  12 

leaf-cutting,  10 

obtuse-tongued  carpenter,  12 

parasitic,  II 

potter,  II 

sharptongued  burrowing,  12 

the  true,  4 
Belostoma  americanum,  278 
Belostomatids.  271,  278 
Benacus  griseus  Say,  278 
Berytidae,  272,  309 
Bethe,  Albrecht,  41 
Bethylida\  25,  33 
Beutenmliller  W.,  365,  366 
Bibio  albipennis,  119 
Bibionidae,  86,  119 
Bibionoidea,  Super-family,  85,  86 
bibliography,  405 
big-eyed  flies,  149 
bird  lice,  82,  347 
bird  ticks,  188,  189 


biting  lice,  347 
Bittacomorpha,  95 

clavipes  Fab.,  95 
Bittacus,  207 
black  ant,  46 
black  beetle,  330 
black  carpenter  ant,  43 
black  cricket,  342 
black  flies  and  buffalo  gnats,  I20 
black  fly,  80 
black  horse  fly,  132 
Blepharocera  capitata  Loew,  125 
Blattidce,  322,  329 
BlepharoceridiE,  86,  124 
Blissus  leucopterus  Say,  310,  311 
blood-sucking  cone-nose,  293 
blow-fly,  164 
blue-bottle  flies,  164,  166 
Boisduval,  49 
Bombidse,  6 
Borabus  borealis,  14 

fervidus  Fabr.,  12,  14 
Bombyliidae,  87,  88,  134,  137 
Bonnet,  262 

book-lice  and  their  allies.  The,  350 
Borboridas,  92,  187 
Boreus,  207 
bot-flies,  155 

bot-flies,  typical  life  history  of,  155 
Bothriothorax,  57 
bottle,  the  cyanide,  401 
box  elder  plant  bug,  305 
Brachycera,  84,  86 
Brachydeutera  argentata,  182 
Brachypeplus  magnus,  333 
Brauer,  L.,  207,  217 
Brewer,  W.  A.,  182 
bristletails,  380 
Buckley,  356 
buffalo  gnats,  120 

tree  hopper,  life  history  of  the,  239 
Bugonia  Myth,   153 
bugs,  the  true,  226,  269 
bumblebee,  6 

life  history  of,  12 
Burns,  Robert,  316 
Burroughs,  John,  344 
burrowing  bees,  12 
Busck,  August,  33 
Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United  States 

and  Canada,  The,  by  Scudder,  61 
Butterfly   Book,  The,   W.   J.  Holland, 

IX 
button  bolls  of  sycamore,  311 

cabinet,  preparing  insects  for  the,  401 

cabinet.  The,  403 

Caddis  flies,  195,  196 

Csenis,  79 

Calliphora  erythrocephala,  164 


418 


Index 


Callotermes,  358 

Calopterygidos,  369,  370 

Calopterygina;  370 

Calopteryx,  370 

CalypteratK,  Group,  89,  90 

Campodeidas,  381,  384 

Camponotids,  39 

Camponotus     pennsylvanicus,    43,  48, 

147 
Camptobrochis  grandis,  301 
Camptoneura  picta,  176 
Canadian  Entomologist,  285 
cannibal  bugs,  293 
Capsida:,  272,  301 
Caratomus,  359 
Carolina  locust,  333 
carpenter  bees,  8,  9,  10,  12 
cat  and  dog  flea,  life  history  of,  193 
Catalpa  speciosa,  184 
Cecidomyia  destructor  Say,  113 

larvae,  1 18 

legumenicola  Lint.,  115 
Cecidomyiid  galls,   114 
Cecidomyiida:,  53,  86,  113 
Celtis,  259 
Cephidce,  69 
Cephus  pygmsus,  69 
Ceratina  dupla,  8 
Ceratinida:,  6,  7 
Ceratitis  capitata,  178 
Ceratopogon,  iii 
Ceratosniia  (Osmia)  lignivora,  10 
Cercopidte,  229,  241 
Ceresa  bubalus,  239 
Chaetopsis  cenea,  176 
Chalcidid  parasite,  256,  257 
Chalcidoidea,  3 

Chalcidoidea,  Super-family,  56 
chalcis  flies,  49,   53,  56 

parasite  on  lace -winged  fly,  224 
chalcis  fly,  life  history  of,  57 
Chalybion  coeruleum,  22 
de  Charmoy,  D'Emmerez,  20 
Chauliodes,  211,  212 
Chauliodes,  lunatus,  211 

pectinicornis  L.,  211 
cheese  skipper,  179 
chicken  flea,  193 
chigger,  193 
chigoe,  193 
chinch-bug,  310 
chinch-bug  family,  the,  310 
chinch  bug,  life  history  of,  311 
Chionea,  95 

Chironomidfc,  85,  no,  362 
Chironomus,  in,   112 

minutus,  in 

plumosus,  no 
chisel,  392 
Chittenden,  F.  H.,  xi,  140 


ChlorochroQ  conica,  236 
Chloropsassimilis,  183 

graminea,  183 
Chrysididse,  25,  32,  33 
Chrysis,  32 

ccerulans,  32 
Chrysopa  oculata  Say,  224 
Chrysopidie,  210,  222 
Chrysops,  132,  137 
Chrysopsis,  I14 
cicada,  annual,  22 
Cicada  emarginata,  232 
cicada,  large  dog-day,  22 
Cicada  septendecim  L.,  233 
Cicadas,  231 
Cicadidce,  229,  231 
Cimbex  americana,  75 
Cimicidie,  271,  288 
Cinura,  380,  381,  384 
Circotettix  verruculatus,  334 
Clemens,  Samuel  L.  (Mark  Twain),  41 
Cleptes,  32 
Climacia,  221 
Clisiocampa  americana,  64 
Clisiocampa  disstria,  64 
Cloeon,  79 

clover  seed  midge,  115 
Coccidas,  230,  246,  250 
Coccince,  254 
Coccinellid^,  258 
cockroach,  American,  330 

Australian,  330 

domestic,  20 

European,  330 

German,  330 
cockroaches,  329,  331 
Coenomyid^,  126      * 
Coleoptera,  79 

collecting  and  preserving  insects,  389 
collecting  apparatus,  389 
collecting  aquatic  insects,  395 
collecting  different  orders,  394 
collecting  forceps,  392 

shears,  394 
CoUembola,  380,  385 
Colletidse,  6 

comb-horned  fish-fly,  211 
Comstock,  J.   H.,   124,    12S,   134,   139, 
145,  147,  149,  197,   199.   216.   237, 
293,  297,  298,  304,  313,  398 
cone-nose,  blood-sucking,  293 
Coniopterygidx,  210,  218 
Coniopteryx  vicina,  218 
Conocephalus,  344 

ensiger,  344 
Conopidse,  89,  154 
Conorhinus  sanguisuga,  293 
Cook,  O.  F.,  355 
Copidosoma,  57 
Coquillett,  D.  W.,  xi,  83,  97,  160,  161 


,  419 


Index 


CordulegasteridEe,  369,  373 
Cordulidas,  369,  375 
Coreidae,  270,  272,  304 
Corisidae,  273 
Corixa,  273,  274 

femorata,  273 

mercenaria,  273 
Corixidae,  271,  273 
Corrodentia,  350 
Corydalis  cornuta  L.,  214 
Corythuca  arcuata  Say,  300 
cotton  stainer,  30S 

cotton  stainer  and  its  allies,  The,  307 
cotton  stainer,  life  history  of,  30S 
cottony  cushion  scale,  218 
Coville,  F.  v.,  14,  15 
Cowper,  W.,  342 
Crabronidce,  19 
crane  flies,  94 
crane  fly,  life  history  of,  95 
creeping  water  bugs,  The,  280 
crickets,  341 

western,  337 
croton  bug,  330 
Cryptocerata,  273 
Ctenophora,  95 
cuckoo  bee,  7 

flies,  32 

flies,  so  called,  25 
Culex,  loi,  102 

pungens  Wiedemann,  104 
Culicida;,  85,  98 
currant  worm,  imported,  74 
Currie,  Rolla  P.,  xi 
Cursoria,  323,  329 
Curtice,  Cooper,  157 
Curtis,, John,  378 
Cuterebra,  155 
cyanide  bottle,  401 
Cyclops,  51 

Cyclorhapha,  Section,  84,  8g 
Cynipoidea,  3,  49,  53 
Cynipoids,  54 
Cyrtidoe,  134 

daddy-long-legs,  94 
damsel-flies,  370 
dance-flies,  144 
larvae  of,  145 
Davidson,  A.,  32 
death  watches,  352 
deer  flies,  131,  132 
Delphacinae,  235 
Deltocephalus  inimicus,  245 
Dermatobia  cyaniventris,  155 
Deromyia  annulata  Bigot,  142 
devil's  darning  needles,  363 
devil's  riding  horse,  295 
Dexia,  162 
Dexiidae,  go,  162 


Diamorus  zabriskii  Cres.,  8 
Diapheromera  femorata  Say,  323 
Diaspinee,  254 
Pledrocephala,  244 

moUipes,  244 
differential  locust,  333 
digger  wasp,  life  history  of,  22 
Diopsidse,  92,  179,  180 
Diplosis,  113,  265 
Diptera,  xi,  79,  80,  81,  108,  158,  189 

methods  of  collecting,  395 

table  of  the  higher  groups,  83 
Dissosteira  Carolina,  333 
Dixa,  97 
Dixidse,  85,  97 

dobson  and  its  family,  the,  211 
dobson,  life  history  of,  212 
dog-day  cicada,  22 
dog-day  harvest  fly,  232 
DolichopodidcE,  88,  144,  145 
Dysdercus  suturellus,  308 
dragon-flies,  363 

table  of  families,  36S 

true,  372 
drone-fly,  152 
Drosophila  ampelophila,  185 

flaveola  Meig.,  186 
Drosophilidfe,  92,  185 
dung  flies,  173 
dusty-wings.  The,  218 

earwigs,  345 
Eaton,  378 

Ectobia  germanica,  330 
Edes,  Robert,  343 
Elachistinae,  58 
electric  light  bugs,  278 
Embiidce,  353 
Emerton,  J.  H.,  8,  12 
Emesinae,  294 
Empidae,  88 
Empididae,  144 
Empis,  144 
Enallagma,  371 
Enchenopa  binolata,  238 
Encyrtus  egg,  50 
Entilia  sinuata,  238 
Entomobr>'ida;,  385,  387 
Ephemerida,  377,  379 
EphydridiE,  82,  92,  182 
Epiaeschna  heros,  374 
Epidapus  scabiei,  118 
Eproboscidea,  Suborder,  S3,  93 
ergatoids,  38 

Eriocampoides  limacina,  76 
Eristalis  tenax,  152 
Erythroneura  vitis,  244 
Euantha  liturata,  162 
Eumenes  fraterna,  32 
Eumenid^e,  30 


420 


Index 


Eupelmus  mirabilis,  340 
Euplectrus  comstockii,  57 
Euplexoptera,  345 
European  cockroach,  330 
Euschistus  servus,  314 
Euterraes  nigriceps,  356 
Euvanessa  antiopa,  51 

Fabre,  J.,  21 

false  chinch  bug,  310 

false  crane  flies,  125 

false  rear-horses,  217 

Faxon,  Walter,  343 

Felt,  E.  P.,  xi,  207 

Fernald,  C.  H.,  160,  241 

field  cricket,  343 

fish  flies,  211 

fish-fly,  comb-homed,  211 

fishmoths,  3S0,  382 

Fitch,  A.,  141,  344 

flat  bark-bugs,  the,  2g8 

flat-footed  flies,  149 

Flata,  236 

Flatinae,  235,  236 

flea-lice,  259 

flea,   life   histor)'  of   the   cat  and  dog, 

193 
fleas,  igi 

flesh-flies.  The,  163 
flies,  82 

alder,  211 

bee,  137 

dance,  and  long-legged,  144 

flat-footed,  and  big-eyed,  149 

fish,  211 

fruit  and  gall,  177 

gad  or  horse,  131 

harvest,  231 

little  house,  171 

robber,  141 

small-headed,  and  tangle-veined,  134 

stone,  361 

syrphus,  150,  151 

the  anthomyia,  171 

the  bot,  155 

the  caddis,  195 

the  dung 

the  flesh,  163 

the  golden-eyed  lace-winged,  222 

the  grass  stem,  183 

the  hump-backed,  147 

the  little  fruit  flies,  185 

the  nimble,  162 

the  salt-water,  182 

the  scorpion,  206 

the  snake,  216 

the  tachina.  158 

the  thick-head,  154 

the  true,  79 

window,  and  stiletto,  139 


flower  bugs,  the,  287 
fly,  blue-bottle,  164,  166 

green-bottle,  164 

hellgrammite,  212 

life  history  of  a  scorpion,  207 

the  house,  166 
"  flying  adders,"  363 
Forbes,  S.  A.,  52,  186,  245,  357 
forceps,  collecting,  392 
forest  fly,  1S8 
Forficulids,  346 
Formica,  42 
Formicoidea,  3 

Formicoidea,  Super-family,  37 
four-lined  leaf-bug,  302 
Fox,  W.  H.,  147,  148 
frit  fly,  184 

frog-hoppers  or  spittle  insects,  241 
frosted    lightning   hopper,  life   history 

of,  236 
fruit  and  gall  flies,  177 

flies,  the  little,  185 
Fulgorida;,  22g,  235 
Fulvius  anthocoroides  Uhl,  301 
fumigator,  392 
fungus  gnats,  117 

gad  flies  or  horse  flies,  131 
gad-fly,  80 

life  history  of,  132 
Galerucella  luteola,  301 
Galgulids,  271,  2S1 
Galgulus  oculatus  Fab.,  281 
gall-gnat,  life  history  of,  115 
gall-gnats,  113 
gall-flies,  53 

guest,  55 

parasitic,  55 
gangrene,  80 
garden  flea-hopper,  301 
Gastrophilus,  155 
Gaurax  anchora,  183 
Geomyzidee.  92,  187 
German  cockroach,  330 
giant  water  bugs.  The,  27S 
Gibson,  William  Hamilton,  20,  238 
gigantic  bed  bug,  the,  293 
golden-eye,  life  history  of,  224 
golden-eyed  lace-winged  flies,  221 
golden  rod,  114 
goldwespen,  32 
Gomphidse,  369,  372 
Gomphinse,  372 
Gomphus  vastus  Walsh,  372 
Goniozus,  36 

grape-vine  Phylloxera,  265 
grasshopper,  life  history  of,  334 

lubber,  333 

short-homed,  333 

western,  333 


421 


Index 


grasshoppers,  320 

green,  336,  337 

The  long-horned,  336,  337 

The  short-horned,  332 
Grassi,  B.,  192,  35S 
Grave,  Caswell, 
green-bottle  fly,  164 
green  flies,  74 

grasshoppers,  336,  337 

soldier  bug,  314 
Gressoria,  323 
grub,  155 
grubby  cattle,  155 
Gryllidae,  322,  341 
Gryllus  domesticus,  342 

neglectus,  343 
guest  gall-flies,  55 
gypsy  moth  report  (1S96),  315 
Gyropida;,  349 

habits  of  the  Aculeate  Hymenoptera,  20 

hackberry  trees,  259 

Hadronotus  anasje,  306 

Hsematobia  serrata,  i65 

Haldeman,  S.  S.,  212 

Halictus,  12 

parallelus,  12 
Haliday,  A.  H.,  33 
Halticus  uhleri  Giard,  301 
hand  lens,  393 
Harrington,  W.  H.,  344 
Hart,  C.  A.,  95,  126,  129,  132,  245 
harvest  flies,  231 
harvest-fly,  22 

dog-day,  232 
haversack,  393 

hawthorn  lace  bug,  life  history  of,  300 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  344 
hearth  cricket,  342 
HebridcB,  273 
heel  fly,  155,  156 
Heidemann,    O.,     xi,     270,    284,   298, 

301,  311 
Helicobia,  165 
hellgramite  fly,  212 
hellgrammites,  211 
Helomyzidae,  91,  174 
Hemerobiidce,  210,  221,  222 
Hemiptera,  226 
Hemiptera,  some  points  on  methods  of 

collecting,  394 
Hemiptera,  table  of  suborders,  227 
Henicocephalidse,  272,  292 
Henicocephalus  culicis  Uhl.,  292 

formicinis  Uhl.,  292 
Hermetia,   128 

illucens,  128 
Hessian  fly,  80,  113 
HetEerina,  370 
Heteroneuridae,  91,  173 


Heterophaga,  2 

Heteroptera,  xi,  227,  269,  270,  347 

table  of  families,  270 
Hippelates,  81 
Hippobosca  equina,  i88 
Hippoboscidae,  93,  188 
Hirmoneura,  134 
Hodotermes,  359 
Holland,  W.  J.,  ix 
Holmes,  O.  W.,  337 
Holorumsia,  95 

grandis,  95 
Homoptera,  227,  228 
Homoptera,  table  of  families,  229 
Homalomyia  brevis,  171 

canicularis,  171 
honey  ants,  45 
honey    ants    and    the    Occident    ants, 

the,  46 
honey  bee,  6 

wasps,  25 
hop  plant  louse,  265 

Life  history  of,  265 
Hopkins,  A.  D.,  118 
horn-fly,  166 

horn-tail  larvae,  parasites  of,  68 
horn-Tail,  life  history  of,  71 
horn-tails,  69 
hornet,  bald  faced,  27,  28 

of  England  and  Europe,  29 
horse  flies,  80,  131 
horse  stingers,  363 
house  cricket,  342 
house-fly,  80,  81,  82 

and  its  Near  Relations,  The,  166 

life  history  of,  167 
Hubbard,  H.  G.,  81,  121,  184,  350,  351, 

356,  358 
hump-backed  flies,  147 
Huxley,  T.,  262 
Hydrocores,  273 
Hydrocorisce,  273 
Hydrometra  lineata,  285 
Hydrometridce,  271,  273,  283 
Hydropsychidoe,  197,  204 
HydroptilidfB,  197,  201 
Hygrotechus  remigis,  284 
Hymenoptera,  xi,  i,  69,  79 

internal    feeding    parasitic,  362 

parasitic,  51,  55,  67 

some  points    on   methods  of  collect- 
ing. 394 

Suborders,  Table  of,  2 

Superfamilies,  Table  of,  2,  7 
hymenopterous  parasites  of  dragon-fly, 

366 
Hypoderma  bovis,  155 

lineata  Villers,  155 

ichneumon  flies,  33,  61 


422 


Index 


ichneumon  fly,  life  history  of,  64 

Ichneumonoidea,  3,  61 

imported  currant  worm,  74 

insects,  collecting  and  preser\'ing,  389 
collecting  aquatic,  395 
for  the  cabinet,  preparing,  401 
killing  and  preserving,  401 
rearing   different  kinds  of,   396 

internal  parasites,  how  they  live,  49 

introduction,  vii 

Isoptera,  353,  354.  355 

Jalysus  spinosus,  309 
Japygidce,  3S1,  384 
Jassida;,  229,  243 
Jassoidea,  243 
jumping  plant-lice,  259 

katydid,  337 

angular-winged,  339 

"song,"  321 

tv-pical  life  history  of,  339 
Katydids,  320 

Kellicott,  D.  S.,  368,  372,  375 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  108,  109,  348 
killing  and  preserving  insects,  401 
Kirkaldy,  G.  \V.,  274 
Kirkland,  A.  H.,  315 
kissing  bug,  293 
koo-chah-bee,  182 
Koppen,  F.,  365 
Krsemer,  55 

La  Fontaine,  39 

Laboulbene,  192 

lace  bugs.  The,  299 

lacewing  fly,  79 

lace-winged  flies,  the  golden-eyed,  222 

lace-winged  insects,  209 

ladybirds,  258 

Laelius  trogodermatis  Ashm.,  34 

Laraborn,  Robert  H.,  366 

lantern-flies  and  their  allies,  the,  235 

Laphria,  142 

larch  saw-fly,  74 

Largus  succinctus,  307 

Lasius,  42 

leaf-bug,  typical  life  history  of,  302 

leaf  bugs.  The,  301 

leaf-cutting  bees,  11 

leaf-footed  plant  bug,  304 

leaf-hopper,  typical  life  history  of,  245 

leaf-hoppers,  the,  243 

Leboeuf,  A.,  360 

Lecaniinie,  254 

Leeuwenhoek,  317 

Leidy,  Joseph,  80 

lens,  hand,  393 

Lepidocyrtus  americanus,  387 

Lepismatidse,  3S1,  382 


Leptidse,  87,  126 

Leptocerida;,  197,  203 

Leptocoris  trivittatus,  305 

Leptogaster,  142 

Leptoglossus  phyllopus,  304 

Lestes,  371 

Lethierry,  289 

Leucopis,  187 

Libellula  pulchella  Drury,  376 

Libellulas,  372 

LibellulidcE,  369,  375,  376 

lice,  the  true,  316 

life  History  of  a  bee-fly,  typical,  138 

bumblebee,  12 

Chalcis  fly,  57 

common  walking-stick,  323 

crane  fly,  95 

digger  wasp,  22 

gad  fly,  132 

gall-gnat,  115 

golden-eye,  224 

grasshopper,  334 

horn-tail,  71 

katydid,  typical,  339 

leaf-bug,  typical,  302 

leaf-hopper,  typical,  245 

midge,  in 

mosquito,  104 

parasitic  wasp,  34 

pear-tree  Psylla,  260 

rear-horse,  327 

scorpion  fly,  207 

water-strider,  2S5 

white  fly,  typical,  247 

ichneumon  fly,  64 

ants,  typical,  48 

bot-flies,  typical,  155 

stink  bugs,  typical,  314 

wasps,  typical,  33 
Life  History  of  the  ant-decapitating  fly, 

147 

bed-bug,  289 

buffalo  tree-hopper,  239 

cat  and  dog  flea,  193 

chinch-bug,  311 

cotton  stainer,  308 

dobson,  212 

frosted  lightning  hopper,  236 

hawthorn  lace  bug,  300 

hop  plant  louse,  265 

house-fly,  1S7 

oyster-shell  bark  louse,  255 

"  pear  slug,"  76 

"  seventeen-year  locust,"  typical,  233 

squash  bug,  305 

wheel  bug,  294 
Limnephilidfe,  197,  199 
Limnobates  lineata  Say,  282 
Limnobatida:,  271,  282 
Limnobia,  95 

423 


Index 


Limosina,  187 
Limosina  venalicius,  187 
Liotheicia;,  349 
Lipoptena,  189 
little  house  flies,  171 
locust,  231 

American,  333 

Carolina,  333 

differential,  333 

migratory,  333 

red-legged,  333 

two-striped,  333 

typical  life  history  of  the  **  seventeen- 
year,"  233 
Locustida;,  322,  336,  341 
locusts,  true,  332 
Lonchrea  polita,  175 
LoncheidjE,  91,  175 
Lonchoptera,  146 

lutea,  146 
Lonchopteridae,  89,  146 
long-horned   grasshoppers,    The,    336, 

337 
long-legged  flies,  144,  145 
Lopidea  media  Say,  301 
Lowne's  "Anatomy  of  the  Blow-Fly, 164 
lubbei  grasshopper,  333 
Lubbock,  Sir  John,  43,  44,  146,  388 
Lucilia  cresar,  164 
Lugger,  O.,  220 
Lygaeida;,  272,  310 
Lygsaids,  307 
Lygus  pratensis,  301 
lyre-man,  22,  232 

Macronema  zebratum,  205 
malignant  pustule,  80,  131 
Mallophaga,  82,  347 

table  of  families,  349 
Mallophora,  142 
Mantida;,  322,  326,  329 
Mantis  religiosa,  327 
Mantispa  interrupta,  217 

bninnea  217 
Mantispida",  210,  217 
march-flies,  119 
Margarodes,  228 
Mark  Twain,  41 
Mark  Twain's  "  Chamois,"  193 
Marlatt,  C.  L.,  13,  27,  36,  224,  330 
marsh  treaders,  The,  2S2 
Martin,  J.  O.,  285,  2S6 
Marx,  George,  353,  404 
mason  bee,  10,  11 
Mason,  O.  T.,  31 
may  flies,  79,  361,  362,  377 
McCook,  H.  C,  46,48 
McLachlan,  R.,  198 
Mearns,  E.  A.,  366 
Mecoptera,  206 


Megachilidte,  6,  10 
Megarhinus,  101,  102 
Megastigmus,  55 
de  Meijere,  146 
Melanolestes  picipes,  293 
Melanoplus  atlanis  Riley,  334 

bivittatus,  333 

differentialis,  333 

femur-rubrura,  333 

spretus,  333 
Melophagus  ovinus,  1S8 
Membracidje,   229,  237,  241 
Meromyza  americana,  183 
Metapodius  femoratus,  304 
methods  of  collecting  different  orders, 

394 
Miall,  L.  C,  viii,  274 
Miall   and    Denny,  "The    Anatomy  of 

the  Cockroach,"  330 
Miall  and  Hammond,  iii 
Miall  and   Walker,   Trans.   Ent.   Soc, 

London,  1895,   108 
Microcentrum  retinerv'is,  339 
Microdon.  150,  152 
Micropezids,  91,  92,  179 
midge,  life  history  of,  iii 
midges.  Si,  no 
migratory  locust,  333 
mimicry,  aggressive,   142 
Monomorium  minutum,  46 

pharaonis,  43,  46,  47 
Monostegia  rosre,  74 
Morelos  orange  fruit  worm,  178 
Morse,  A.  P.,  334 
Morse,  E.  S.,  241 
mosquito,  life  history  of,  104 
mosquitoes,  80,  81,  82,  98,  102,  103 
moth-flies.  The,  108 
mourning-cloak  butterfly,  51 
mud-daubers,  22 
mud-minnow,  278 
mule  killers,  327 
Mundt,  A.  H.,  365 
Murgantia  histrionica  Hahn.,  313 
Murtfeldt,  Miss  Mary  E.,  26 
Musca  domestica,  166,  167 
Muscidae,  90,  166 
Muscoidea,  Super-family,  89 
museum  pests  (dermestid  beetles),  34 
Mutillidse,  25,  32,  33,  37 
Mycetophila,  117 
Mycetophilidae,  86,  117 
Mycetophilids,  118 
Mydaidas,  87,  136 
Mydas-flies,  136 
Mydas  fulvipes  Walsh,  136 

luteipennis  Loew,  136 
myiasis,  163 
myiasis  interna,  171 
Mymaridae,  247 


424 


Index 


Myopa,  154 

Myriopoda,  380 

Myrmeleonidre,  210,  219 

Myrmicids,  39 

Mytilaspis  pomorum  Bouche,  255 

Myzinidse,  31,  33 

Naucorids,  271,  280 

Nectarinia,  26 

Needham,  J.  G.,  xii,  211,  212,  221,  373, 

376.  379.  395 
Nematidce,  73 
Nematus  erichsonii,  74 

ribesii,  74 

ventralis  Say,  75 
Nemestrinida;,  87,  134 
Nemocera,  Subsection,  84 
Neoprosopis,  12 
Nepa,  276,  277 
Nepidoe,  271,  276 
net,  sweeping  or  beating,  391 
net,  the,  3S9 
net,  water,  391 

Neuroctenus  simplex  Uhl.,  298 
Neuronia,   19S 

Neuronia  semifasciata  Say,  19S 
Neuroptera,  209 

Neuroptera,  Table  of  Families,  210 
Neuropteroid  series,  xi,  30 
Newport,  7,  49 
Nezara  hilaris  Say,  314 
nimble  flies,  The,  162 
Nomadidae,  6,  7 
no-see-um,  in 
Notonecta,  275 
Notonecta  undulata,  275 
Notonectid:e,  271,  275 
Nycteribiidae,  93,  190 
Nyzius  angustatus  Uhl.,  310,  311 

Odonata,  363,  368,  371 
Odontomyia,  126,  129 

cincta,  I2g 

vertebrata,  129 
Odynerus,  31,  32 
Qicanthus  niveus,  343 
Gistridfe,  90,  155 
Oistrus  ovis,  155 
Olfersia  americana,  188 
Oligotoma  hubbardi,  360 
Oncognathus  binotatus,  301 
onion  fly,  171 
Ooencyrtus  anass,  306 
ophthalmia,  purulent,  81 
Orchelimum  vulgare,  337 
orders,    some    points    on   methods   of 

collecting  different,  394 
Orgyia  leucostigma,  64 
Ormenis  pruinosa,  236 
Orphnephila  testacea,  124 


Orphnephilidre,  86,  124 
Ortalidas,  91,  175 
Orthoptera,  320,  334 

some  points  on  methods  of  collecting, 

395 
Orthorhapha,  Section,  84 
Oryssida.',  69 

Osborn,  Herbert,  119,  243 
Oscinidoe,  92,  183 
Osmia  larva,  11 
Osmiinas,  10 
Osten  Sacken,  R.,  153 
ox  bot,  155 
ox  warble,  155 
Oxybelidas,  19 
Oxybelus  quadrinotatus,  19 
oyster-shell  bark  louse,  life  history  of, 

255 

Packard,  A.  S.,  ro,  no 

Panorpa,  206,  207 

Panorpa  rufescens  Ramb. ,  207 

Panorpids,  95,  207 

Papiriid.Te,  385,  388 

Parasita,  316 

parasitic  bees,  li 

gall  flies,  55 

Hymenoptera,  51 

wasp,  life  history  of,  34 
parasites,  how  internal,  live,  49 
parasites  of  horn-tail  larvae,  68 
parasites,  proctotrypid,  49 
pavement  ant,  43 
pear  slug,  life  history  of,  76 
pear-tree  Psylla,  life  history  of,  260 
Peckham,  Geo.  W.  and  Elizabeth  G.,  18 
Peckhams,  The,  19,  20,  21,  30,  33 
Pedicia  albovittata  Walk.,  95 
Pediculus  vestimenti,  317 
Pegomyia  vicina,  172 
Pelecinida;,  51 
Pelecinus  polyturator,  52 
Pelocoris  femorata,  280 
Pelopseus,  22 
Pentatomidae,  272,  313 
Pentatomids,  270 
Pepsis  formosa,  136 
Pergande,Theodor,  20,  54,  140,  147,  193 
Pericoma  californiensis,  108 

canescens,  108 
Periplaneta  americana,  330 

australasiae,  330 

orientalis,  330 
Perkins,  R.  C.  L.,  12,  20 
Perlidae,  361 
Phalangiidae,  94 

Phanurus  tabanivorus  Ashm.,  133 
Phasmidas,  322,  323,  326 
Philasnus  lineatus,  241 

spumarius,  241 


425 


Index 


Phillips,  Miss  R.  O.,  121 
Philopteridse,  349 
Phorbia  brassicfe,  172 

ceparum,  171 
Phoridse,  89,  147 
Phoroidea,  Super-family,  88,  89 
Phorodon  humuli  Schrank,  265 
Phryganea,  198 
Phryganeidfe,  197,  198 
Pliycodromidae,  91,  174 
Phylloecus  integer  Norton,  71 
Phyllomorpha,  305 
Phylloxera  vastatrix,  265 
Phymata  wolffii  Stol,  297 
Phymatida;,  272,  297 
Physopoda,  318 
Phytophaga,  23 
Piesminse,  299 
pigeon  Tremex,  69 
Pimpla,  64,  65,  66,  68 
Pimpla  inquisitor  Say,  64 
pink  eye,  81,  184 
Piophila,  179 

casei  Linn.,  179 
Pipunculidfe,  89,  149 
pirate  bugs,  293 
plant  bugs,  304 
plant-lice,  113,  226,  228,  262 
plant-lice,  jumping,  259 
Platypezidfe,  89,  149 
Platyura,  117 

Platyura  pectoralis  Coq.,  117 
Plea,  275 
Plecoptera,  361 
Podagrion  mantis,  328 
Podisus  serieventris  Uhl.,  314 

spinosus,  314 
Poduridae,  385,  386 
Pcecilocapsus  lineatus  Fabr.,  302 
points  on  methods  of  collecting  differ. 

ent  orders,  some,  394 
Polistes,  26,  29 

mellifica  Say,  25 

metricus  Say,  142 
Polybia,  30 
Polygnotus,  51 
Pomotis,  278 
Pompilidce,  30 
Poneridae,  39,  47 
Pontania,  76 
Popenoe,  E.  A.,  36 
potter  bees,  11 
potter-wasps,  30 
Poulton,  E.  B.,  297 
Pratt,  F.  C,  xi,  118 
praying  insects,  327 
praying  Mantis,  141,  326 
preparing  insects  for  the  cabinet,  401 
preserving  insects,  collecting  and,  389 
preserving  insects,  killing  and,  401 


Prionidus  cristatus,  295 
Prionotus,  136,  295 
Proboscidea,  Suborder,  83 
Proconia,  244 

undata,  244 
Proctotrypid  Parasites,  49 
Proctotrypiodae,  3,  25,  33,  49,  51 
Prosopidce,   12 
Psectra,  79 

Pseudoneuroptera,  209 
Psilidce,  92,  179 
Psilota,  150 
Psithyrus,  15 
Psocidre,  350 
Psocids,  403 
Psocus  citricola,  351 

venosus,  350 
Psorophora,  loi,  102 
Psychodidfe,  85,  108 
Psylla  pyricola,  260 
Psyllidse,  230,  259 
Pterodontia,   134 

analis,  134 
Pulex  avium,  191 

irritans,  192,  193 

serraticeps,  191 
Pulicidse,  191 

Pulvinaria  innumerabilis,  218 
punkie,  iii 

purulert  ophthalmia,  81 
pustule,  malignant,  80 
Putnam,  F.  W.,  11 
Pyrrhocoridae,  272,  307 

Ranatra,  276,  277 

Ranunculus  poisonous  to  may-fly  larvse^ 

378 
Raphidiidae,  210,  216 
Raptoria,  323 
Rasahus  binotatus,  293 
rat-tailed  maggots,  152 
Ratzeburg,  49 
Reade,  Chas.,  181 
rearhorse,  141 

life  history  of,  327 
rear-horses,  326 

the  false,  217 
rearing  different  kinds  of  insects,  396 
rectal  gills  of  dragon-fiy  larvae,  367 
red  ant,  43,  46 
red-legged  locust,  333 
reduviid  eggs,  294 
Reduviidae,  272,  293 
Reduvius  novenarius,  295 

personatus,  293 
Rheumatobates  rileyi,  2S4 
Rhomaleum  micropterum,  333 
Rhyacophilidae,  197,  200 
Rhyphidae,  86,  124,  125 
Riley,  C.  V.,  32,  54,  55,  234,  339,  343 


426 


Index 


robber-flies,  141,  142 

larvae  of,  142 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  138 
rose  chafer,  74 
rose  slug,  74 
Rothney,  20 

"  Royal  Dream  Book,  The,"  39 
Rutilia,  162 

Saldidaj,  272,  2gl 
salt-water  flies,  1S2 
Saltatoria,  323 
sand  flies,  120 
Sapromyzids,  gi,  175 
Sapygidae,  3:,  33 
Sarcophaga,   164 
Sarcophaga  carnaria,  164 

sarraceniae,  164 
Sarcophagida;,  go,  163 
Sarcophila,  163 
Sarcopsylla  gallinacea,  193 

penetrans,  193 
saw-flies,  73 
saw-fly,  American,  75 

larch,  74 
scale  insects,  226,  228,  250 
Scatophagids,  gi,  173 
Scatopse,  iig 

pulicaria,  iig 
Sceliphron,  22 
Scenopinida?,  88,  139 
Scenopinus  fenestralis  Linn.,  139 
Schistocerca  americana,  333 
Schmidt,  279 
Schmidt-Schwedt,  274 
Schwarz,  E.  A.,  22,  32,  58,  59,  60,  292, 

293.  359 
Sciara  fraterna,  118 

tritici  Coq.,  118 
Sciaras,   118 
Sciomyzidae,  91,  174 
Sciophila,  117 
Scolia,  31 
Scoliidse,  33 
Scolopendrella,  380 
scorpion  flies,  95,  206 
scorpion  fly,  life  history  of,  207 
Scotridae,  31 
screw-worm  fly,  163 
Scudder,  S.  H.,  61,  337,  340,  343,  344 
Scudderia  angustifolia,  337 
Scutellerinae,  313 

Selys-Longchamps,  Baron  de,  368 
Sepsidse,  91,  92,  179 
Sericostomatidie,  197,  202 
Setodes  exquisita  Walk.,  203 
Seurat,  L.,  50 
seventeen-year   locust,    life    history   of 

the,  233 
Severin,  289 


shad-flies,  377 

Sharp,  D.,  20,  226,  330,  347 

shears,  collecting,  394 

sheep  tick,  188 

Shizoneura  lanigera,  265 

shore  bugs,  the,  291 

short-horned  grasshopper,  333 

short-horned  grasshoppers,  the,  332 

Sialida;,  2IO,  211 

Sialis,  211 

infumata,  211 
Sienkiewicz,  H.,  355 
sieve,  the,  391 
Silvanus  surinamensis,  140 
silver  fish,  382 
Simmons,  W.  J.,  192 
Simon,  192 
Simuliida;,  86,  120 
Simulium,  120,  400 

pictipes,  121 
Siphonaptera,  igi 
Siricid;e,  69 
Siricoidea,  3,  69 
Sisyra,  221 
Slater,  Miss,  279 
slickers,  380,  3S2 
Slingerland,  M.  V.,  303,  327 
small-headed  flies,  134 
Smeathman,  355 
Smicra  microgaster,  129 

rufofemorata,  129 
Smith,  S.  L,  no 
Smynthuridce,  385,  388 
Smynthurus  luteus,  388 
snake  doctors,  363 
snake  feeders,  363 
snake  flies,  the,  216 
snipe  flies,  126 
snowy  tree-cricket,  343 
social  wasps  and  their  allies,  25 
soldier  bugs,  68 

flies,  128 
solitary  ants,  32 

wasps,  18,  30 
some  points  on  methods  of  collecting 

different  orders,  394 
sooth-sayers,  327 
spear-winged  flies,  146 
Sphecius  speciosus  Say,  22 
Sphecoidea,  Super-family,  3,  18,  30 
sphegid  wasp,  22 
spined  soldier  bug,  314 
spittle  insects,  241 
springtails,  380 
squash  bug  and  its  allies,  the,  304 

life  history  of,  305 

parasites  of,  306 
stable-fly,   166 
Stagmomantis  Carolina,  327 
Stein,  216 


427 


Index 


Stelidae,  6,  li 
Stelis  minuta,  il 

Stenopelmatus,  337 

Stenoxenidie,  85,  g7 

Stenoxenus  johnsoni,  g7 

stiletto-flies.  I3g,  140 

stilt  bugs,  The,  309 

stinging  ants,  39 

stingless  ants,  39 

stink-bugs  and  their  allies,  The,  313 

typical  life  history  of,  314 
stink  flies,  222 
Stiretrus  anchorago,  314 
Stomoxys  calcitrans,  166 
stone-flies,  the,  361 
Stratiomyia,   129 
Stratiomyiid,  126 
Stratiorayiidoe,  87,  128,  129 
Stylogaster,  154 
Summers,  H.  E.,  270 
sun-flowers,   114 
Surinam  toad,  279 
Symphyla,  380 
Syrphidre,  89,  150 
Syrphoidea,  Super-family,  89 
Syrphus,  265 
Syrphus  flies,  149,  150 
Systoechus  oreas,  138 
Systrophus,  137 
sweeping  net,  391 

Tabanidse,  87,  131,  132 
Tabanoidea,  Super-family,  86 
Tabanus  americanus,  132 
Tabanus  atratus  Fabr.,  132 
table  of  families  (of  dragon  flies),  368 

(of  Heteroptera),  270 

of  Mallophaga,  349 
Tachina  Flies,  The,  158 
Tachinidce,  90,  158 
Taenia  (tape  worm),  192 
tangle-veined  flies,  134 
tarantula-killer,  30,  136 
tarnished  plant  bug,  301 
Taylor,  L.  H.,  Ill 
Teleas,  314 

Telemona  monticola,  238 
Telenomus,  51 
Tenodera  sinensis,  327 
Tenthredinidae,   76 
Tenthredinoidea,  3,  73,  76 
Termes  flavipes,  355,  356,  357,  359 

lucifugus,  356,  359 

tubiformans,  356 
Termitidae,  353 

Tetramorium  cfespitum,  43,  46 
Tettigia  hieroglyphia,  232 
Tettigonidae,  243 
Thalessa  atrata,  70 
Thalessa  lunator,  70 


Therevidae,  88,  139,   140 
thick-head  flies,  154 
thick-thighed  metapodius,  304 
thick-thighed  walking  stick,  323 
thin-winged  bugs,  The,  292 
third-party  bug,  313 
Thoreau,  344 
thread  legged  bugs,  294 
Thrips,   244,  318 

tabaci  Lind,  319 
Thynnidie,  31 
Thysanoptera,  318 
Thysanura,  209 
Tibicen  pruinosa  Say  22 
ticks,  the  bat,  190 

the  bird,  188 
tineid  egg,  50 
TingitidK,  272,  299 
Tingitince,  299 
Tiphia  wasps,  31 
Tiphiidre,  31,  33 
Tipulas,  95 
Tipulidoe,  85,  94,  loS 
Tipuloidea,  Super-family,  84,  85 
toad  bugs,  the,  281 
toad-shaped  bugs,  281 
Tolstoi,  6 
Torymus,  57 
Tramp  Abroad,  41 
tree-hoppers.  The,  237 
Tremex,  70 
Tremex  columba,  69 
Trichacis,  51 
Trichodectidre',  349 
Trichoptera,  195 

table  of  families,  197 
Trigonalidce,  33 
Triphleps  insidiosus  Say,  287 
trowel,  392 
true  bees,  4 

bugs,  226 

bugs.  The,  269 

dragon-flies,  372 

flies,  79 

lice,  82,  316 

locusts,  332 
Trypeta  fratria  Loew,  178 

ludens,  178 

pomonella,  177 

solidaginis,  177 
Trypetids,  53,  91,  177 
Trypoxylon,  20,  32 
tsetse  fly,  81 
tussock  moth,  34,  64,  66 
Typhlocyla  vitifex,  244 
Twain,  Mark,  41 
two-striped  locust,  333 

Uhler,  P.  R.,  241,  269,  274,  278 
umbrella,  393 

428 


Index 


Velocipeda,  Bergroth,  2gl 
Vermileo,  126,  127 
Vespa,  26,  142 
Vespa  crabro,  29 

cuneata,  29 

germanica,  27,  29 

maculata,  27,  28 
Vespoidea,  Superfamily,  3,  25,  33,  49 
"  vinegar  flies,"  185 
Volucella,   152 

walking  stick,  life  history  of  a  common, 

323 
walking  sticks,  323 
Walsh,  B.  D.,  31,  32 
War  and  Peace,  6 
Wasmann,  42 
wasp,  digger,  life  history  of,  22 

parasitic,  life  history  of,  34 
wasps  and  their  allies,  the  social,  25 
wasps,  honey,  25 

solitary,  30 

the  solitary,  18 

typical  life  history  of,  33 
water  boatmen,  273 
water  bugs,  the  creeping,  280 
water  bugs,  the  giant,  278 
water  net,  the,  391 
water  scorpions,  The,  276 
water-strider,  life  history  of,  2S5 
water-striders,  the,  2S3 
Webster,  F.  M.,  245 
Weeks,  Archibald  C.,  366 
weeping  trees,  244 


western  crickets,  337 

western  grasshopper,  13S,  332,  333 

wheel  bug,  295 

life  history  of,  294 
Wheeler,  William  M.,  47 
white  ants,  353 
white  flies.  The,  246 
white  fly,  typical  life  history,  247 
white  marked  tussock  moth,  64 
Williamson,  365,  368,  374 
Williston,  S.  W.,  20,  21,  80,  no,  153 

154 
willow  slug.  The  yellow-spotted,  75 
window-flies,  139 
wood-eaters,  69 
Woodworth,  301 
woolly  root  louse  of  the  apple,  265 

Xiphydriida;,  69 

Xylocopa  virginica,  g 

Xylocopida;,  6,  9 

Xylocrabro  (Crabro)  stirpicola,  19 

Xylophaga,  69 

Xylophagidse,  126 

yellow  fever,  81 

Yellow     Fever     Commission,     United 

States  Army,  81 
yellow-jackets,  smaller,  27,  29 
yellow-spotted  willow  slug,  75 

Zabriskie,  Rev.  J.  L.,  8 

Zaitha,  279 

Zambesi  Mission  Record,  360 


429 


tf^ 


7    S^O^^/=?ry 


